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The sources of

modern

architecture

and design

NIKOLAUS PEVSNER t9» PLATES 15 IN COLOR

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PRAEGER WORLD OF ART SERIES

The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design

The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design Nikolaus Pevsner

FREDERICK

PRAEGER

NEW YORK

•

Publishers

WASHINGTON

BOOKS THAT MATTER PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN I968

BY FREDERICK III

PRAEGER, INC., PUBLISHERS

FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, 1968 IN LONDON,

N.Y. IOOO3

ENGLAND BY THAMES AND HUDSON LTD, LONDON

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NO. 68-I9137 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

Contents

Introduction

CHAPTER ONE A Style for the Age CHAPTER TWO Art Nouveau

CHAPTER THREE

New

Impetus from England

1 1

CHAPTER FOUR Art and Industry

147

CHAPTER FIVE Towards

the International Style

Notes on the Text

202

Biographical Notes

204

Select Bibliography

214

Index

215

Introduction

Where lie the sources of the twentieth century ? Sources bespeak a stream, then a river, and finally, in our particular case, the ocean of the International Style of the 1930s. Do Prometheus and the unknown inventor of the wheel stand by the source as the genii fontis? No; because there are breaks, and our civilization is not connected with that distant past by a continuous flow. But even if we admit that civilizations 'rise and fall, crumble, are extended. Are renewed, destroyed', even if we keep within Western civilization, are the sources of the twentieth century then the invention of clocks with wheels and weights and of printing with movable type? They are; for without printing and clocking-in there could be no twentieth century. Mass communication and mass production are among the things distinguishing ours from all preceding centuries. However, it is only the quantitative exploitation which belongs exclusively to us, not the invention itself. And that is indeed a phenomenon to rank high in force among the sources of the twentieth century and therefore of modern art. The twentieth century is the century of the masses mass education, mass entertainment, mass transport, universities with :

twenty thousand students, comprehensive schools for two thousand children, hospitals with two thousand beds, stadia with a hundred thousand seats. That is one aspect; the other is speed of locomotion, every citizen being an express-train driver on his own, and some pilots travelling faster than sound. Both are only expressions of the technological fanaticism of the age, and technology is only an appHcation of science. Science, technology, mass locomotion, mass production and consumption, mass communication - in the field of the visual arts which is our field in this book, that means the predominance of architecture and design over the hcaux-arts, it means the

predominance of the city over the small town and the country, and it means the concentration on architecture and design for the masses and on what new materials and new techniques can do for them. If this is accepted as a diagram of the twentieth century, so far as we can observe and analyse it, where do its sources lie then? We can now endeavour to list and consider them in their order of time.

CHAPTER ONE

Style for the

Age

Architecture and design for the masses must be functional, in the sense that they must be acceptable to all and that their well-

functioning able and a

the primary necessity.

work of art, but only

be expected to prefer

its

A chair can be uncomfort-

the occasional connoisseur can

aesthetic to

its

utilitarian qualities.

The

of our sources. Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, born in 1812, the EngHsh son of a French father, wrote on the first page of his most important book 'There should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety The smallest detail should serve a purpose, and construction itself should vary with the material employed.'^ That was written in 1 841 but it was not new then. It is the direct continuation of the principle of French seventeenth and eighteenth century rationalism. Architecture, writes Batteaux,^ 'is not a spectacle but a service', and 'security, fitness, convenience, propriety' are all familiar from Cordemoy to Boffrand and the younger Blondel. To quote two less familiar passages, neither French Hogarth called the first chapter of his Analysis of Beauty, 'Of Fitness', starting thus: 'Fitness of the parts to the design for which every individual thing is form'd ... is of the greatest consequence to the beauty of the whole ... In ship-building the dimensions of every part are confin'd and regulated by fitness plea for functionalism

the

first

for saiHng.

the

two

When a vessel sails well,

ideas

have such

the sailors

a connection.'^

call

her

beauty;

And the Abbate LodoH,

not uninfluenced perhaps by Hogarth, referred in his stimulating as a piece of functional to appear in a building ought design, and stipulated that nothing which is not 'truly fulfilling its function' or: 'has not its own proper function' and is not 'an integral part of the fabric' and conversations to the Venetian gondola

designed in

a logical relation to

the 'nature of the material'.^

The fact that Pugin, who came first in this string of quotations, called the

hook which he

started with this clarion call

The True

Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture, the fact that his

principal purpose

was not

a plea for

functionalism but for the

Gothic Revival as the expression of a Catholic Revival, even the fu't that he argued extremely intelligently the functional aspect of the Gothic style, of buttresses, of rib-vaults and so on, all these facts do not concern us at present. He was read by the Gothicists, but he was also read by the Functionalists. For such existed among the mid-nineteenth century writers and thinkers. Gottfried Semper in Germany, with his explanation of the

by materials and techwas one of them. He had lived in London as a refugee in the years 185 1-5, and must have been in contact with the small group of architects, artists and administrators responsible for the preparation, the success and the ruthless criticism of the Great Exhibition of 1851 Henry Cole in the first place, Owen Jones, Matthew Digby Wyatt and Richard Redgrave in the applied or decorative arts as conditioned

niques,

second.

These men, even before the exhibition, had issued a small oj Design and Manufactures and in this had applied the principles of Pugin, as Semper was going to do later, to matters of craft and industrial art. Pugin had objected to carpets where one walks 'upon highly relieved foliage',^ the Journal now insisted that carpets should keep to 'a level or low plane', ^ that wallpapers should convey 'the proper impression of flatness'"^ and in a more general way, that 'the first consideration of the designer should be perfect adaptation to intended use'^ and that every object 'to afford perfect pleasure must be fit for the purpose and true in its construction'.^ journal called xh^ Journal

No wonder that these men, when the Crystal Palace had gone up and been filled with the proudest products of all nations, were appalled at the standard of taste displayed. 'The absence of any fixed principle in ornamental design is most apparent,' they wrote, and 'the taste of the producers is uneducated'. ^^ No wonder 10

cither that they

admired the Crystal Palace

itself

The Crystal Palace, built for the Great Exhibition of 85 and re-erected Sydenham in 1853 (above, looking along the roof to the 'transept'). Joseph Paxton's building, which was entirely prefabricated, marked the I

first

major escape from

historical styles in architecture

The Crystal Palace is

the mid-nineteenth century touchstone,

wishes to discover what belongs wholly to the nineteenth century and what points forward into the twentieth. The if one

Crystal Palace was entirely of iron and glass, a non-architect,

and

was designed

was designed by

for industrial quantity

production of its parts. It is a source in one sense, but it also had its sources, and they take us back once again to the eighteenth century. The use of iron in architecture starts in France in the 1780S with Soufflot and Victor Louis, who were especially concerned with making theatres fireproof, and in England in the 1 790S with manufacturers who, acting as their own designers, attempted to make their factories fireproof In both cases the II

///.

iron

was an expedient of high utiHtarian but of no

significance.

internally, in

aesthetic

came into the open, as it were, playfully and only some romantic buildings such as Nash's Royal

Pavilion at Brighton in 1815-20, and seriously and externally in

The earliest iron bridge was the Coalbrookdale Bridge in in fact designed as early as 1777 England. It has a span of 100 feet. It was at once surpassed by the bridge at Sunderland which in 1793-6 spanned 206 feet, and this by James Finley's Schuylkill Bridge of 1809, with 306 feet. The two English bridges had been iron arches, the Schuylkill Bridge was a suspension bridge, and the suspension principle gave us the finest of the early nineteenth-century bridges such the great bridges

///.

of the same

years.

Coalbrookdale Bridge, Shropshire, 1777-81, the first iron bridge in the Its builder, the ironmaster Abraham Darby, was assisted by a minor architect, T. F. Pritchard. The bridge crosses the Severn with a span of one hundred feet 2

world.

3 The Menai Suspension Bridge, linking North Wales with the Isle of Anglesey, was built by Thomas Telford between 1818 and 1826 as part of the Holyhead to Chester Road. Telford, the greatest road and canal engineer of the early nineteenth century, had earlier designed a vast singlespan iron bridge of unprecedented boldness (never built) to replace London Bridge

Thomas Telford's Menai Bridge of 1 8 1 8-26 with a main span

of 579

feet.

- Matthew Digby Wyatt among them were ready to count them among the fmest structures of the century. But they were not the work of architects. The architects, as we have seen, had been ready to use iron in a minor way, where necessity arose, but otherwise at best they only played with it. Now this is what Wyatt wrote

Some

architects later in the nineteenth century

50-1, apropos the bridges, these 'wonders of the world':

'From such beginnings what

may

trust ourselves to

glories

dream, but

may we

be in reserve ... we dare not predict.'^

This was the year of the Crystal Palace. Pugin called it the 'glass monster', ^2 Ruskin a 'cucumber frame', ^^ but Wyatt wrote that the building

was

'consummation novelty of its form and

likely to accelerate the

devoutly to be wished' and that 'the details will exercise a powerful influence upon national taste' ^ A httle later he even foretold from the union of iron and glass 'a new era in architecture'.^^ This was still in 1851. .

///.

5 The Bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve in Paris, by Henri Labroustc (i 843-50), an iron-frame structure frankly revealed as such. At this date iron-framing was normally given a stone or plaster disguise

But by then,

few of the most adventurous

architects

repute had begun to take notice of iron, and Labrouste's

Bibhotheque Ste-Genevieve in Paris of 1843-50 and Bunning's Coal Exchange in London of 1846-9 remain the earliest buildings whose aesthetic character is determined by iron. Labrouste's has the greater elegance and ornamental restraint, as Labrouste was indeed doubtless the better architect of the two. That comes out even more clearly in the exteriors Bunning's of an unprincipled jollity which was accepted at the time in England as belonging to the Free or Mixed Renaissance; Labrouste's also of the Renaissance and also a free Renaissance, but treated nobly, with discipline and economy of decoration. And both architects hid their display of iron behind solid stone.

/// ^' 4,

4 Part of the icon-gallcried interior of the C^oal Exchange in London, by J. B. Bunning (1846-9). Its demolition in 1962 was one of London's most serious and futile recent losses

Wyatt appreciated Bunning, a greater man appreciated Labrouste and was guided by him: Emanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79). When Labrouste stopped teaching, his pupils induced Viollet-le-Duc to take over, and he taught for a short time. In connection with this he began to deliver his Entretiens in

1858, published the

first

volume

1863 and the

important second in 1872. His approach to architecture is the functionahst's. He demands the ^alliance of form with need' and

with

'the

means of

He demands truth: that iron as iron and wood as wood',^^

construction'.^^

'stone should appear as stone,

no 'monumental appearances should conceal bourgeois And consequently he insists on the necessity of a style for the nineteenth century. Today, he says, 'we possess immense resources provided by industry and ease of transportation.'^^ that

habits'. ^^

Architecture belongs 'almost as

much

to science as to art'.^o

Architects must cease to be interested only in whether their fa<;:ades

are to be

attitude 'nothing

Roman, Gothic

new

or Renaissance.

or living can come'.^^

From

When

that

engineers

them to imitate the want to prevent their profession from becoming obsolete they must become 'skilful invented the locomotive

'it

did not occur to

harness of a stage coach'. 22 If architects

ready to take advantage of all the resources And so he arrives at iron, proposes iron even for ribs in vaults (as Boileau had already shown it in Paris churches) and even for externally visible framing. Bold words indeed, but what were the deeds ? Viollet-le-Duc was the great restorer of French cathedrals, the great scholar of Gothic architecture - though admittedly with a keen sense of structure. Like Pugin before him, he did not practise what he preached. His opposite number in England was Sir George constructors,

furnished by our society'. ^^

Gilbert Scott, also a self-confident restorer, also a scholar of

Gothic architecture of no mean achievement, who could write: 'An iron arched bridge may always be made beautiful, and it would be difficult to make a suspension bridge anything else' and 'It is

out

self-evident that a perfectly

new

modem

metalHc construction opens

field for architectural

development. '^^

xr"^f

C:^ 6

W.H.

Barlow's train-shed of St Pancras Station, London, of 1864: feat of engineering with its pointed arch spanning 243 feet

tremendous

But it was not his field, as it was not Viollet-le-Duc's. When he was asked to design a hotel in connection with the new St Pancras Station in London, he provided a towering Gothic pile hiding entirely the magnificent metallic construction which the engineer William H. Barlow had erected behind it as a train-shed and which, with its span of 243 feet, was the largest span ever, until then, achieved by man. It remained the largest in Europe for twenty-five years, until it was finally vastly surpassed by Dutert and Contamin's splendid Halle des Machitics at the Paris Exhibition of 1889, with

its

362

feet span.

///.

111.7

But while iron and glass, and the new aesthetic vocabulary which its extensive use entailed, went on in exhibition buildings and train-sheds and also in factories and office buildings, where much light and a cellular structure were demanded, the architect continued to keep away from the new materials and to be satisfied with the trappings of Gothic, Renaissance and more and more - Baroque. Neither the aesthetic possibilities of defeating the limitation of past styles by means of the new possibilities of skeletal construction nor the social possibilities of mass-produced parts were taken seriously by the profession. The great impetus in the fields of aesthetic and social renewal came from England and centres in the larger-than-life figure of William Morris, poet, pamphleteer, reformer, designer trained a little at university, a Httle in architecture, a little in painting - and ending by being a manufacturer and shopkeeper,

very special one. Morris's firm was started in 1861, in collaboration with his close friends, the architect PhiUp Webb and the painters Ford Madox Brown, Rossetti and Burne-Jones. Morris's theories, as he lived them from when he was twenty-

though

and as he expounded them in impetuous lectures from when he was over forty, are familiar. They derive from Ruskin who had hated the Crystal Palace, had gone out of his way to say that a railway station could never be architecture and denied with frantic fanaticism the necessity for his age to search for a style of its own: 'A day never passes without our architects being called upon to be original and to invent a new^ style We want no new style of architecture ... It does not matter one marble splinter whether we have an old or new architecture The forms of architecture already known to us are good enough for us, and far better than any of us'.^^ Morris was wiser. He refuted the current historicism, the 'masquerading in other people's cast-off clothes', 26 but he too recommended architects to 'study the ancient work directly and to learn to understand it'. 27 He was not a revolutionary; he loved the Middle Ages and loved nature and the open country, and he hated the big cities. His hatred was visual at first, but turned social almost at once. five

7 The Hall des Machines, built for the Paris Exhibition of 1889. It was primarily the work of engineers, led by V. Contamin, though assisted in the details by th

architect Dutert

pattern that

was

become

characteristic in the future

.mA

^^^>^

(l!

whole county covered with of smoke^^ swindlers and their slaves'. The dried Middle Ages were not only pleasing to his eyes, they were also - as they had been to Ruskin - right in their social structure, or what he believed to have been their social structure. In the Middle Ages, he said, art was not 'divided among great men, lesser men, and little men',^째 artists were not, as they are now, 'highly cultivated men whose education enables them, in the contemplation of the past glories of the world, to shut out from their view the everyday squalors that most of men live in'.^^ Artists were plain

London

him was not only

hideous hovels', ^^ but also a 'beastly congregation

workmen, 'common

fellows'

who worked away

'on the anvil'

or 'about the oak beam' with 'many a grin of pleasure'. ^^

museum their own day'.^^ And the

things which

are

The

now 'were common things in reason why that was so, is that in the pieces

Middle Ages 'daily labour was sweetened by the daily creation of Art'. ^"^ And so Morris arrived at his definition of art as 'the expression by man of his pleasure in labour'. ^^ He arrived at the

demand

that art should

maker and

become

this again: 'a

happiness for the

man

can have no he can enjoy what the craftsman does for him. So art should be not only 'by the people' but also 'for the people'. ^^ 'I do not want art for a few, any more than I want education for a few, or freedom for a the user.' For while the average

interest in the self-conscious isolated artist,

few.'37 It is

strange system of theory to be guided

the mid-nineteenth century.

for a

man

can only be understood as a

demonstration of opposition to the standard and the taste of design as it was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of London in 1 85 1, Paris in 1855, London again in 1862 and Paris again in 1867.

Looking

at the

goods, especially the domestic goods,

illus-

of these exhibitions, one can understand Morris's outbursts. In the Middle Ages 'everything which was

trated in the catalogues

made by man's hand was more or less beautiful,' today 'almost all wares that are made by civilized man are shabbily and 20

pretentiously ugly.'^^

buyer,

houses are

What is offered and

filled

sold

'hurtful to the

he only knew'.-^*^ Our with 'tons upon tons of unutterable rubbish',

hurtful to the

seller,

and the only acceptable things are usually in the kitchen. '^o The reason is that they alone are honest and simple, and 'the two virtues most needed in modern life (are) honesty and simplicity '."^^ Morris maintained that a bonfire ought to have been made of nine-tenths of all that was in wealthy people's houses. ^2

Morris in

his

own day was no doubt

right in

blaming

production by machinery is you refuse to accept the machine,

industry. 'As a condition of

life,

altogether an evil.'"*^ But if you cannot produce cheaply. What Morris's firm made was bound to be expensive, and could not be 'for the people'. Nor was it strictly speaking 'by the people'; for Morris and his

friends designed their chintzes and wallpapers, their furniture and stained glass, and while it was made, admittedly, by hand (though not always), it was not really creative craft. Yet, in spite of such inconsistencies, Morris succeeded in what he had set out to achieve. He made young painters and architects* in all countries turn to craft or design that is, he directed them towards helping people in their everyday lives. Why he succeeded, where Henry Cole and his friends had not, is easily seen. For one thing he practised (up to a point) what he preached. He was a fanatical craftsman himself, trying his hand at wood-carving and illumination as early as 1856, and furnishing his first rooms in London with Morris-designed and carpenter-made 'intensely medieval furniture ... as firm and as heavy as a rock'."*^ Two years later he got married, and a year after, in i860, he moved into Red House, a house at Bcxley Heath outside London, designed for him by his friend Philip Webb and furnished to Webb's and Morris's own designs. The house was daring in many ways, in exposing its red brick without a coat of stucco, in planning from inside out, that is, with secondary consideration of fa(;:ades, and in frankly showing the ;

construction inside. 21

>iijsjj^

Such

is of a truly revolutionary completely devoid of any period allusions and

a detail as the fireplace

character,

completely functional in displaying its brick courses horizontally where the logs are laid and vertically where the smoke goes up. It is an exception in its own day and more prophetic of the coming twentieth century than anything in the field of domestic design in any country for thirty years to come. Most of the firm's early furniture is much more backward-looking, though to the simplicity of the cottage and never to the displays of the rich man's house. Yet even among the furniture sold by the firm, one can find occasional pieces of remarkably independent design. A chair designed by the Pre-Raphaelite painter Ford Madox Brown about i860, for instance, though also clearly a simple cottage chair, shows originality in the slender elongation of the rails of the back. Simphcity and directness unite this chair, Webb's fireplace, and the very fine designs in the flat of Morris and his firm, such as his famous Daisy wallpaper designed in 1862 and Webb's

///.

III.

Red House, Bexleyheath, Kent,

which was designed by Phihp

Webb

1859 for his friend Williarn Morris, was comfortable, domestic, and very free in its handling of period precedent. In some details, like this fireplace, Webb shows an originality that looks forward to Voysey or Lutyens in

1! i

Under

the influence of Morris's

went back of the English

ideas furniture designers to the simplicity

and revived several traditional types from the country. This chair by Ford Madox Brown of about i860, with its straight lines and rush seat, antedates the foundation of the Morris firm cottage,

MM;

tAiQ^4|k^'

c c

^\ ^i^

Wi f^

^ttSi

The firm of Morris and Co. exerted a decisive influence on almost every

aspect of design and interior decoration; Philip (see

III.

Webb

III.

in 1862, for a fireplace in

produced these

tiles

Norman Shaw's Old Swan House

Swan

tiles

later,

when

hours

was the absence of simplicity and directness from the goods one could buy in the existing shops and stores which led to the creation of the firm. And there again Morris directed development both as a craftsman and a designer. When he decided that the firm should turn to the printing of textiles, and saw that bad dyeing was one of the chief troubles, he learned to dye for himself And

Lily,

designed in the same year.

the firm turned to tapestry weaving, he spent 516

four

months

the loom. But Morris's success

was not

machine-woven Kidderminster carpeting, by William Morris, 187

"^a^l

mB '-

my <짜

^W ^^v

'Si?/

(^i^^H

^ kmr^i

1 i

Silk

damask designed by

Owen

Jones, a friend of Henry Cole and supporter of the Great Exhibition: the Cole circle, even before Morris, reacted against the florid photo-

graphic naturalism of High Victorian designs, and produced flat

patterns for

flat

surfaces

only grounded in the example of craftsmanship he set, it was even more due to his genius as a designer. The designs of the Cole circle are dry and doctrinaire, Morris's are brimful of Hfe. That is one memorable thing about them the others are these. His designs are always crisp. There is no 'slobbering and messing about' in them.'^^ Secondly, he succeeded better than anyone before or after him in achieving a balance between nature and style, between the flatness recommended for textiles, etc., by

Ilh

12, 13

Ills.

11,12

;

and the richness and abundance of it so well in his childhood and youth. Moreover, his designs - in terms of design, not of imitation - possess the equivalent of the closeness and density of nature observed. Finally - and this matters most in our particular context - the designs, especially those of before 1876, are not in any way closely dependent on the past. They may be inspired to a certain extent by Elizabethan and Jacobean embroidery, but they are essentially original. Pugin and the Cole

circle,

flower and leaf as he had studied

An example of Morris's own design - a chinz {Tulip, 1875) that shows the ehness and crispness of Morris at his best

Just as Morris

knew

that to re-establish values in the things

was

matter of social conscience before it could ever become a matter of design, so he also knew - and in this he proved just as much a prophet - that the revival of one's everyday use

sound architecture must precede the revival of sound design. 'Unless you are resolved', he said in 1880, *to have good and rational architecture, it is useless your thinking about art at '46 ji^g great architect' of his own day, he knew, lived a Hfe all carefully 'guarded from the common troubles of common men'.'^'^ What he was referring to here is the fact that the leading architects of the nineteenth century spent their lucrative working hours designing churches, public buildings and country houses and villas for the rich. This attitude changed only gradually, and it will be one of our tasks in this book to watch the change. Its first stage is what became known as the .

Norman Shaw's

country houses may be compared with those of Philip Banstead, Surrey, of 1884, shows the same sensibly informal planning, though the angular chimney-stack and the neatly placed windows 14

Webb. are

self-consciously urbane

later

house by Philip

Webb: Standen

1892. Beginning as always

venience,

Webb

achieves a

near East Grinstcad, Sussex, ot

from the requirement of comfort and condesign combining sincerity and elegance

English Domestic Revival, a turn of some architects of Morris's generation to the domestic

and

at the

same time

field, entirely

to a smaller scale

and

or almost entirely, a greater delicacy

detail.

The two most important names Philip

Webb

Norman Shaw. We have once. An early work of his

met Webb more than maturity is Joldwyns in Surrey of already

are that of Morris's friend

and that of Richard

1873.

Its

14, 75

Ills.

chief merits are a

combination o{ boldness and straightforwardness, a refusal to do anything for show, and a great faith in local building materials. Webb, like Morris, was not a revolutionary. He loved old building in the country and used its methods and motifs. He was never afraid of mixing styles and he relished unexpected solecisms such as the long chimneys ot Joldwyns, or the far-projecting five gables in a row at Standen, a house of 1892.

///.

Shaw was an almost 1 6 exact contemporary of Morris and Webb. distinguishes

him

What his

sophisticated wit and his

wiUingness to play with

amusing Zealand Chambers, in the City of London, 1872, uses motifs from the seventeenth and

historical styles for effect.

His

New

eighteenth century to create an efficient, well-lit office block

Shaw was more 17

the

artist,

where

Webb

more fanciful and elegant and perhaps also He, too, never departed far from the past, at least in his individual motifs, and he too mixed them with delight. The oversailing upper floors of Swan House, Chelsea, of 1876, are in the tradition of timber-framed building. The oriel windows on the first floor are a favourite English motif of about 1675, the excessively slender windows above are Queen Anne - but the deHcate, even piquant ensemble is Shaw

was the

///.

a different character,

builder,

sensitive.

17 Old Chelsea, by

Swan House, Shaw (1876).

Each of its elements can be traced to

a historical

source, but their combination

has an elegance that

unmistakably Shaw's

and no one else and had a great deal of influence in England and America. Shaw even introduced this novel idiom into the City of London. New Zealand Chambers of 1872, unfortunately destroyed in the Second World War, is just as dainty and

///.

III.

windows on the ground floor are specially remarkable. There is no period motif here; they are simply

domestic.

The

oriel

introduced to allow a maximum of daylight to enter the offices. Shaw's country houses are nearer Webb's, although they also can perhaps be called more lighthearted. 31

>i^ti^^'V',

^^-^

Ipir

mil III

gjgji suburb The earliest Bedford Park, near London - the first garden style that has influenced modest a in designed were houses of about 1875 large and informal; old domestic architecture ever smce. Gardens were feeling rural pleasant a give to kept trees were 1

///.

concerns us There is one more respect in which Shaw's work though at the here. At Bedford Park, not far from London, from 1875 the first built he town, time still not engulfed in the Carr's Jonathan but his, garden suburb ever. The idea was not

who had

acquired the

to Hfe, in terms

However, Shaw made it come of modest houses and of old trees

site.

streets

preserved in the gardens and 32

new

trees planted in the streets.

Again the design of the houses is not specially original. Their source is Tudor England and Stuart England, though again not the England of the 'prodigy houses' but of the manor house of the size of William Morris's own at Kelmscott in Oxfordshire. Webb and Shaw had established the middle-class house as the progressive architect's chief preserve. Morris had re-established the aesthetic importance of our closest everyday surroundings.

Webb

nor Shaw had felt as strongly about the necessity of an original style of the nineteenth century, that is, about forms not taken over from the past, as Viollet-leDuc had done. It made little difference; for Viollet-le-Duc, when it came to designing, was if anything more period-bound than Webb and Shaw. No one in Europe could get away

But neither he nor

entirely

from historicism before the

i88os.

19 Kelmscott Manor, William Morris's beloved house: the picturesque and plain outline of such old houses, with wings added gradually through the centuries, inspired English architects from Webb and Shaw onwards

///.

W.G. Low

Bristol,

House,

Rhode

Island,

by Stanford White (18S7, demolished), hi America architects

such as White and Richardson were able to break with historical precedent even more radically than Webb

and Shaw

20 (below)

The

F.L.

Ames Memorial Gate Lodge Mass.,

at North Easton, by H.H.

Richardson

880-1),

in his favourite

stonework

massive

And Europe longer

does in fact not cover the world situation any

at this juncture.

of Americans

The

much

defeat of historicism

was the work

Europeans, though their front of

was significantly broader than that of the English. In the of the private house, H. H. Richardson and Stanford White of McKim, Mead and White showed as much fresh enterprise as Shaw, though admittedly not without knowing of his earlier houses. Occasionally, as in the house for W.G.Low at Bristol, Rhode Island, of 1887, which has been foolishly allowed to disappear, White displayed a radicalism beyond Shaw's and explicable no doubt by his pioneer background of building in a young nation. The same radicalism was applied with even greater independence in commercial architecture. It is here that America about 1890 established international leadership. attack

field

///.

III.

The

flict

that

America

now

reached

this crucial

moment

one of the most memorable facts of the century. The United States had been colonial in their reaction to European styles. They had become provincial, that is, part of a common front of progress, but an outlying part. Now all at once they left everyone else behind. They did this in first developing the skyscraper and then in finding a new style for it. In 1875 in New York the Tribune Building by Hunt rose to 260 feet, in 1890 the Pulitzer (World) Building by Post to 375 feet. These early skyscrapers are simply high houses, not even especially characterized as office buildings. It would have been possible to characterize them so for English office buildings had evolved a style as early as the 1840s in which the facade was reduced to a grid of stone piers and large windows. Chicago, a ;

///.

22 As early as the midnineteenth century English office buildings had evolved a functional style in which the w^all was reduced to a grid of verticals and horizontals. This example at Nos. 5-7 Aldermanbury, London, by an unknown architect, dated from about 1840

23 The Guaranty Buildmg, Buffalo (1895)the masterpiece of Louis Sullivan. In technique

and in emphasis

strong vertical points forward to the twentieth century, but its elaborate and its it

complex ornament it still

in the

Nouveau

places

age of Art {see

III.

26)

uM^m fs g r^^r""'-

newer

New

York, and one in which traditions could this novel and logical treatment and made it the standard of its skyscrapers. Moreover, Chicago added of its own the equally logical and most far-reaching innovation of applying the system of the iron frame, originally a system used for factories, to the high office building. This was first done by WilHam Le Baron Jenney in the Home Insurance Building in 1883-5. It was an untidy and fussy building, but the tidying up was done only five or six years later by a few more talented architects Burnham & Root, Holabird & Roche and Louis SulHvan. Holabird & Roche's Tacoma Building city than

not possibly matter, took up

///.

from 1887-9, Burnham & Root's Monadnock Building from 1889-91, SuUi van's Wainwright Building at St Louis from 1891. In the following years appearances were rapidly even further purified. Holabird & Roche's dates

(not a frame structure)

moment

the Marquette Building of 1894, SulHvan's

///.

classic

///.

the Guaranty Building of 1895 ^t Buffalo.

The importance of the School of Chicago is threefold. The job of the office building was here approached with a perfectly open mind and the functionally best solution found. An untraditional building technique offered itself to fulfil the needs of the job and was at once accepted. And it was now at last architects who took the necessary action, and no longer engineers or other outsiders. Sullivan in particular

what he was doing.

In his Ornament

knew

clearly

an article would be greatly for our aesthetic in Architecture,

of 1892, he had written: 'It good, if we should refrain entirely from the use of ornament for a period of years, in order that our thought might concentrate upon the production of buildings comely in the nude.'"^^ Yet SulHvan himself loved ornament, though he used it externally only in a few judiciously chosen places. It is a very personal feathery foliage ornament, inspired partly by the Morris Movement, but much freer, wilder and more entangled. It has been called Art Nouveau or Proto-Art Nouveau, and whether such a term is justifiable cannot be decided until Art Nouveau has been closely examined. .

Ills.

2^, 26

24 The Marquette Building, Chicago, by Holabird & Roche. Here in 1894 the frame is completely expressed around large, broad windows (those at the bottom are already the 'Chicago type', see III. 182), the detailing is plain, and the whole is so well planned it is still highly efficient today

steel

^^7

L^i-H

'^^ r -

i^.

(fv^V^v

'*^;'?^

S ornament by Louis Sullivan, (right) on the Guaranty Building and (above) on the Carson Pirie Scott store (begun 1899, ///. 182). Ornament in architecture had a special importance for Sullivan, and his own, with its tensions and exuberant curls, is strikingly original 25, 26 Cast-iron

(1895, see

III.

25)

This is in fact our task now; for Art Nouveau was the other campaign to drive out historicism. This is its primary significance in European design and architecture, whatever other delights and aberrations it may harbour. Among the sources of modern architecture and design it is still the most controversial. Today's architecture and design having taken a turn away from rationalism and towards fancy, Art Nouveau has suddenly become topical, and the very qualities of it which in this narrative will appear historically most dubious are hailed. Books and exhibitions have vied with each other to present its fascination. All the more important must it be to attempt an analysis - aesthetic as well as historical.

RHMnCKMURDO,RRIBR

â&#x20AC;˘

^.RLLEN.

8 B 3

SUNNYSIDE, ORPINGTON.

KENT.

27 Mackmurdo's title-page for his book of 1883 defending Wren's City Churches introduced motifs which became popular throughout Europe

CHAPTER TWO

Art

Nouveau

The term Art Nouveau comes from

Ding's shop in Paris

opened late in 1895, the corresponding German term J uj^endsti from a journal which began to appear in 1896. But the style is older. Traditionally it is supposed to have started fully mature in Victor Horta's house, no. 6 rue

Paul-Emile Janson

in Brussels,

and that house wâs designed in 1892 and built in 1893. lût it marks no more than the transfer of the style from the small to a larger scale and from design to architecture. The incunabula of Art Nouveau belong to the years 1883-8. They are the following. Arthur H. Mackmurdo, wealthy young architect and designer, in 1883 wrote a book on Sir Christopher Wren's churches in the City of London - not a subject that seems to call for Art Nouveau - and gave it a titlepage fully Art Nouveau. What justifies this statement? The area inside the frame is filled by a non-repeating, asymmetrical pattern of tulips, stylized vigorously into flaming shapes. To the left and right sharply cut short by the frame are two cockerels, pulled out to an excessive thinness and length. The characteristics which we shall see recur whenever we speak of Art Nouveau are the asymmetrical flaming shape derived from nature, and handled with a certain wilfulness or bravado, and the refusal to accept any ties wîth the past. Of course Mackmurdo's design is not without ancestors, but they are not to be found among the hallowed period styles. He must have looked at Morris and, like Morris, at the PreRaphaelites. He must have known WiUiam Blake, as the Pre-Raphaelites did, but he was also famihar - socially too with Whistler, and although Whistler was an Impressionist in his formative years, he soon found an aim of his own, the aim to blend the Hght, soft, hazy tones of Impressionism with the 43

///.

29 Three trends after i860: (top ri^ht) seeming naturalism pleasantly formalized in the signet of Morris and Co. (c 1861); (bottom right) sinuous elegance in

murdo's signet

for the

Mack-

Century Guild,

incorporating its initials (1884); (above) Japanese stylization in Whistler's calligraphic Butterfly signature

(left)

The Peacock Room, 1876-7:

by Whistler in blue and gold 'Japonaiserie' of a room designed by Thomas Jeckyll for the shipping magnate F.R. Leyland's collection of porcelain lavish decoration

creation abstract,

o{ piquant decorative patterns, sometimes almost sometimes linear as in the celebrated Peacock Room of

1876-7. His equally celebrated signet,

the butterfly,

Companions are Morris's early signet of his firm and Mackmurdo's of the Century Guild which he started in 1882. The three signets sum

example of

his genius for

///.

witty stylization.

up a story of nature and abstraction in which Morris, Whistler and Mackmurdo are of equal importance. It need hardly be added that the idea of calling a firm a guild was a bow to the Ruskin and Morris circle. It was to convey connotations of the Middle Ages and of cooperation instead of exploitation or 45

III

30 Title page of the Hobby Horse, designed by Selwyn Image in 1884. Printed on hand-made paper in a

carefully chosen

traditional typeface,

heralded a style of book-design lasting

well into this century.

'Never before', said The Studio, 'had modern printing been treated as a serious art.'

///.

Ills.

32, 33

competition. Mackmurdo's guild brought out a journal the Hobby Horse, and the title-page and typography of this also are worth remembering. It preceded by six years Morris's more famous venture into typography and book-making, the

Kelmscott Press. Mackmurdo designed textiles for his guild in 1884 too, and they possess much of the originality and the swagger of the Wren title. It is difficult to assess the effects of the Century Guild. The eighties were the years of Morris's wide success as a designer. His by then much more staid, symmetrical, as it were, classic designs for textiles were the principal influence in England. But Mackmurdo's daring also found an echo here and there. Heywood Sumner, who was indeed for a while

worked in its style. The cover of the of Fouquc's Undine (1888) is a masterpiece in its own right. The world of sprites or fairies of the water was bound to appeal to Art Nouveau sensibility. Hair and waves and seaweeds were as alluring as such elemental creatures themselves, not guided by reason but by instinct. For order enforced by intellect is one of the things against which Art Nouveau was in opposition, and the conscious selection of styles of the past to be imitated represented that principle of enforced order. associated with the Guild, translation

Cover of Fouque's Undine by Heywood Sumner, 1888

ltt:

///.

32, 33

printed cotton fabrics (1884), above Mackmurdo, partly derived Heygate Arthur Peacock, by

The beginnings of Art Nouvcau:

Single Flower, right.

--^ :^^^

from Morris but containing all the elements of the later style. They were printed by Simpson and Godlce of Manchester for the C^Mitury Caiild

Mackmurdo's exploration was one indeed Morris's had been. But efforts

two dimensions,

breaking the shackles of

historicism in the crafts, expressing themselves in the shaping

not the decorating of objects, were not entirely lacking either. Pride of place here goes to France. Emile Galle of Nancy was five years older than

Mackmurdo. His

///.

of 1884 and conventions as Mack-

glass vessels

after are as alien to nineteenth-century

murdo's book and textile designs, with their soft, subtle colours and the mystery of their naturalistically-represented flowers emerging out of cloudy grounds. Nor was Galle alone, even in these earliest years. Eugene Rousseau, for instance, a much older craftsman in Paris of whom too little is known, turned to a new style at the same time. The Musee des Arts Decoratifs bought certain pieces from him in 1885, and among them is jardiniere in imitation ofjade and a tall vase of clear glass, both strikingly independent and courageous. The scratched-in pattern of the tall vase is particularly bold - Klee rather than Morris. 2i

Ills

34, 35

34, 35 In glass the Art Nouvcau created novel shapes as well as novel decoration.

Among

pioneers was Eugene Rousas a vase with Klee-like scratched decoration (r[^ht} and an imitation-jade jardiniere (left),

seau,

its

with such pieces

both of 1884-5

36 A vase of shaded coloured glass by Emile Cialle, of about 1S95, decorated with a cyclamen in enamel. Cialle, like Obrist illl. >4) had studied botany

37 Crackleware goblet by Ernest Baptiste Lcveille {c. SSy) colour both inside and out, and only about 6 inches high i

E.B.Leveille, a pupil of Rousseau,

showed

Exhibition of 1889, wholly in the same ///.

;

marbled with

glass at the Paris

spirit, for

instance a vase

oi craquele glass marbled in green and red. In ceramics there is only one parallel to Rousseau, and that takes us to the most influential of all outsiders, to Gauguin. 52

/-.

s r?^'

23*A-^-*:

11-^

38 Crystal vase decorated with translucent enamel, abt)ut 9 inches high, bv

EmileGalle(i887)

39 The only leading painter to expernnent with crafts at this time was CJauguin: he carved and painted tliis wooden panel in iHHi for a cupboard in his own dining-room

40 Gauguin also designed a ceramic centrepiece for a table, in the form of a girl

bathing in

pool 1888

41 A pitcher by Gauguin, baked and enamelled in 1886 by Chaplet

who not only forms but experimented with crafts himself. In 1881, before he had given up his job at the bank to devote himself to art, he decorated a cupboard in his diningroom with carved wooden panels in decidedly exotic shapes and painted red, green, yellow and brown. Primitivism starts from here, and a primitivism very different from Philip Webb's. Webb went back to the English countryside, Gauguin already here to barbarity. Then, in 1886 he turned to pottery. The jug here illustrated is as original and as ruthlessly crude. The epcrgne with the bathing girl of 1888 is a little less uncompromising. In fact, the introduction of the female figure into objects for use was both in the nineteenth-century tradition and to the liking of Art Nouveau. Gauguin

the only one of the leading painters

influenced design

his

///.

III.

Man

with the

Axe by

Paul Ciauguin, 1891

43 Gauguin's

Aux Roches Noires of 1889, from the catalogue of an exhibition of impressionist and synthetic painting at the

Cafe

Volpini in Paris

Where Gauguin comes

closest to the

Mackmurdo-Sumner

endeavours is in his work in two dimensions, that is, as a painter and a graphic artist. The catalogue title-page for the Cafe Volpini exhibition of 1889 is violently primitive again, a painting such as the Man with the Axe has the vermiculating lines which became a hall-mark of Art Nouveau. Their influence was brief but wide, and not only on painters such as Munch. Gauguin conveyed his concern with craft as well as his style to

44 The serpentine Hne of the water ripples in Gauguin's Man with the

Axe

painted in Tahiti in 1891, reappear in Henri van dc Vcldc's title-page design for Dominical, ot 1892 (left),

///.

III.

of Pont-Avcn, and so we find Emilc Bernard in 1888 doing wood-carving as well as an applique wall-hanging, and J.F. Willunisen in 1890 turning to ceramics very much of the Gauguin kind. Willumsen stayed in France and then returned to Denmark. There, however, while he had been away, a parallel development had begun in ceramics, independent, it seems of Pont-Aven. Thorvald Bindesb^ll, two years older than Gauguin, and an architect by training, the son in fact of the most original Danish architect of the neo-Greek movement, his friends

///.

Among Gauguin's friends at Pont-Aven many were roused by his example to take up crafts. The Danish painter Jens Ferdinand Willumsen produced this vase in the form of a mother, father and baby (1890) 45

4^ Emilc Bernard, also one of the Pont-Aven hanging of Breton women picking pears in i8S8

circle,

made

this

wall-

///.

47 ^S

had ill the i88os begun to work in ceramics. The plate of 1891 with its crudely drawn tulips asyniiiietrically and indeed casually arranged still links up with Gauguin and Art Nouveau his later plates stand entirely on their own in the whole of Europe. One ;

tempted

art;

to sec in

them a parallel to the Kandinsky moment in it by nearly twenty years. One might also

but they antedate

- and more justly - look in the direction of Gaudi, but even then Bindesb^ll seems to retain priority. Bindesb^ll's impact remains, and what ties him into our particular context here, is the attitude of the architect turning potter and indeed craftsman in general.

47 The Dane Thorvald Bindesb011 became the most original ceramic of his generation. The dish, of 1 89 1 is still Art Nouveau in its twisting

artist

lines, naturalistic tulips

the East

and asymmetry, though there are influences from

places

later dish

him

Both the

by Bindcsb011 of 1899, with from every other

in a class apart

dishes

shown here

its

bold abstract decoration,

artist in

are glazed ceramic with

both are large - about 18 inches

Europe

sj^riijfito

the time.

decoraticMi and

diameter

^^ ^m •^w

<»'

^^^^^

mffn^f^ t

^7m

(

•f-^ ;3

^i^ ^fl

49 The greatest English master of Art Nouveau sculpture was Alfred

No else.

Gilbert;

on the base

of the 'Eros fountain in Piccadilly Circus (1892) he freely indulged his taste for writhing,

marine, slightly sinister

forms

radicalism of Bindesb^ll's force can be found

The

nearest to

England

anywhere

certain half-concealed

elements in the highly successful monuments of Alfred Gilbert. Gilbert was a sculptor in metals, precious metals on a small scale, bronze in his large works, monuments as a rule. Their figures in a gristly, crustaceous substance, some of it heavy flow like lava, some arrested in grotesque shapes. There was only one man in another country as ready and perhaps readier to force metal into such violent expression Antoni Gaudf, whom we shall meet more prominently soon. The material of his first challenges was iron. His father was a coppersmith; and he grew up day in day out seeing metal molten and shaped. Inspiration to experiment with iron for

are

embedded

seemingly in

Ills.

49> 50

50 Silver tablc-ccntrc with inlays of mothcr-of-pcarl, designed by (.illnrt Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1H87 and presented t(^ her bv her officers. It stands over 3 feet high for

m i^nmK:^

iri*ii.

51 Wrought-iron grille of Gaudi's early Casa Vicens, c. 1880, based on palm fronds; the son of a coppersmith, Gaudi used metalwork lavishly

decorative purposes will also have

///.

log

which show

come from

Viollet-le-Duc's

of spandrels between iron arches how medievalizing foliage trails can be made of iron. Gaudf s first house, the Casa Vicens at Barcelona, of 1 878-80, is medievalizing too, though in a fantastical semi-Moorish way, and fantastical also are the spiky palm-fronds or stars of the iron fence. In the Palau Giiell of 1885-9, his first major job, the forms are less aggressive and more ingratiating, and the parabolic shape of the portal is as unexpected and free from references to the p9St as are the undulations of the iron. The ease of bending wrought iron and its ductility, which allow for Entretiens,

the

most

delicate stalk-like filaments,

material of Art

in the details

Nouveau.

made

iron a favourite

came

into

its

own

already referred to

once with Horta*s house of 1892-3 The famous staircase of no. 6 rue

(p. 43).

Paul-Emile Janson has

a slender iron

column

left

exposed, an

iron handrail of thin tendril-like curves, and in addition, not of

52 Detail from Viollet-le-Duc's Entretiens (1872), demonstrating cast-iron construction and the use of iron foliage in a spandrel

///.

and ceiling decoration of the same this could have been designed without influence from the England of Macknmrdo. iron, applied wall, floor

curves.

One

can hardly believe that

from Pont-Aven is more easily proved, as we Although we are dealing with architecture the job on the staircase was essentially one of decorating,

Indirect influence

shall see presently.

here, ///.

log

Gaudi's

sufficiently

at the entrance to the Palau Giiell. are not prepared yet for the architecture proper of both

buildings and their designers.

Art Nouveau so

much so

that

indeed very largely

some have denied

its

matter of decoration -

validity as an architectural

- and it is furthermore largely a matter of surface decoration. We must now follow it through the years of its conquest and international success - a short-lived success; for it began about 1893, arid it was faced with a formidable opposition from about 1900 onwards. After 1905 it held out only in a few countries, and mostly in commercial work in which no creative impetus was left, if there ever had been any. style

53 The Angels' Watch by the Belgian designer Henri van de Velde (1891), no doubt inspired by the Pont-Aven group. This is the essence of Art Nouveau - a recognizable subject, but every outline reduced to undulation

54 Obrist's embroidery Whiplash (1892-4), like an exotic botanical plate, shows one plant's leaves, bud, flower and root. Obrist had studied botany, and looked to art to 'glorify nature never seen till now, its powerful life and gigantic divine forces'

of the book initiated the movement, first. Henri van dc Velde, Belgian painter, influenced by the pointillistcs and by Gauguin, turned to design about 1 890, the first such case of conversion by Morris that we can watch closely. The tapestry, or rather applique wall hanging, called Angels' Watch, of 1 891, can only be understood as an echo of the work of Bernard. It interests us because the disposition of the forms and the all-pervading undulations make it so thoroughly Art Nouveau. The trees are stylized more

they

textiles

may

and the

art

be considered

rigorously than the figures.

Hermann Obrist How ers and if one compares it w ith

year or

two

It is

a tour dc force,

s ^

///.

later

did that curious piece of embroidery which

with their root.

///.

inspired by

was as if spring had come all of a sudden,' said van de Velde when he saw designs by Voysey. Water-Snake is an exuberant design of about 1890. Voysey is in the line of Morris and Mackmurdo, but Art Nouveau transforms his early designs into something quite distinct 55

'It

first

the best

work in the field of textiles in England during the same work of Charles F. Annesley Voysey, a first impres-

years, the

sion ///.

obtained of the restraint and the sanity of England during

those years. Excesses of Art

exception to

this rule

Nouveau

has already been

are

all

but absent.

named: Alfred

the other - Scottish and not English - will be

commented on of about 1890 are clearly influenced by Mackmurdo's, but they are milder in their rhythms and a little more accommodating. Less than ten years later Voysey was to abandon this style altogether and turn to another, more original, later.

Ills.

j2, JJ

One

Gilbert;

but 68

Voysey's

less

textiles

Art Nouveau.

WSk}

mm ^^

^/fi

Kr,^

r>.(^

56 Voyscy's NYniphcas,

printed cotttin of iSSS

57 Georges Leniinen's catalogue for an exhibition oC Les llii^^t (1891) is closer to the boldness and vigour of Gauguin than to the sophistication of his fellowBelgian Horta

58-60 The typographic revival begun by Mackmurdo (III. 27) and Morris was carried on in Belgium by van de Velde with these free,

magazine Van of 1896 (right ; see also III. 44). In Germany Otto Eckmann designed this alphabet and cover for scrolly initials for his

en Straks,

Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture (far right), both about 1900

typography Belgium again held

key position. Les

Vinj^t,

whose exhibitions were perhaps the most courageous in Europe - they had shown Gauguin in 1889, van Gogh in 1890, books and works of English artistthat adventurous club of artists

1 892 - had as the title-page of its catalogue in 1 891 design by Georges Lemmen reflecting Gauguin at his most

craftsmen in a

Art Nouveau. The

year after, van de Velde went into

///.

1896 are the initials made for Van Nu en Straks, delightful play with the typical swelling and tapering curves of Gauguin as well as the English book artists in

Mackmurdo

book

decoration. His title-page to Max Elskamp's Dominical is uncannily close to the Gauguin of the Man with the Axe, painted in Tahiti the year before.

///.

Here again the contrast to the staid splendour of the Kelmscott Press is great and can serve as a reminder of how differently things were to go in England. Germany joined in the new Belgian style after a few years' hesitation. Otto Eckmann who died young in 1902 and Peter Behrens who soon repented these wild oats were the leading the

designers.

1895.

succession.

Eckmann

Both

painting for design in 1894, Behrens in designed type-faces of Art Nouveau character

about 1900 and business firms,

left

also

book

decoration,

book jackets, bindings and

flBeDeF6B3K

bmnoPQRSCu vwxyz abcdefghijkimn

opqrsHuuwxyz dick 1234567890

printed matter for so on.

Ills.

39, 60

A remark on book-binding itself must be appended to these remarks on the art of the book. The reason for picking out, as one of the examples to be illustrated, a binding by the Nancy ///.

craftsman Rene Wiener

that

introduces us to

a different

Nouveau. The asymmetric and the curving, curly shapes which were de rigueur could be obtained abstractly or aspect of Art

Van de Velde believed as fervently in the one, of Nancy believed in the other. Neither was wholly original. Henry Cole and his friends had preached the necessity of ornament being 'rather abstractive than imitative*,"^^ the Victorian decorators themselves in all countries had wallowed in accurately portrayed roses, cabbage leaves and all the rest. Now Galle had an inscription above the door to his studio which read: 'Our roots are in the depths of the woods, beside the springs, upon the mosses', and wrote in an article: 'The forms furnished by plants adapt themselves quite naturally naturalistically. as the artists

Bookbinding too was affected by the new ideas: one of its masters was Rene Wiener of Nancy, who produced this portfolio for engravings decorated with vines and a press - designed and made by Camille Martin

1894

KÂŤ^nl Sf^x: '*i/>;':>ift

I"'

62 Binding by Wiener for Flaubert's Salammbo (1893), with enamelled corners by Camille Martin. Victor Prouve, who did the leather-work, designed it to suggest the contents of Flaubert's novel, which he had long

admired: it shows Moloch, the moon-goddess Tanit, and Salammbo writhing in the python's embrace

line-work. '^0 Line

the operative word.

nineteenth century, naturaHsm reigned in

all fields;

the

mid-

the natural

were worshipped. Even in a church, otherwise imitated from the style of say the thirteenth century, the foliage of the capitals was made yet more real than it had been at any moment in the Middle Ages, and the leaves of native trees and hedgerows were displayed proudly. Art Nouvcau designers went to nature because they were in need of forms to

sciences

accurately

express growth, not of human making, organic not crystalline

forms, sensuous not intellectual forms.

So much for Nancy - and of course others in other countries. Van de Velde on the other hand insisted on the intellectual process of converting nature to make it ornament. Ornament, he said, must be 'structural and dynamographic'. 'The least naturalistic association' would menace the eternal values of 73

necklace

(1900) also by Lalique, is a filigree

design of hazel-nuts

and foliage in low relief, with translucent enamels and diamonds

ornament. ^^ Few were as radical as van de Velde, but as a matter of principle, Voysey, for instance, agreed: 'To go to nature is before a living of course to go to the fountain head, but plant a man must go through an elaborate process of selection and analysis. The natural forms have to be reduced to mere symbols. '52 The future was with the abstractionists not the naturalists, even if not the immediate future. For as soon as Art Nouveau spread and became commercially exploitable, its van de Velde version was too exacting, and the less pure mixtures of curvaceous ornament with the curvaceous forms of plants or indeed the female body, were certain of a greater .

success.

The

on the continent of

Europe, were the ending years of the nineteenth and the very years of the twentieth century. The catalogue of the Paris Exhibition of 1900 is a mine of Art Nouveau. The necklace with pendant by Rene Lalique was shown, and it illustrates, as do

first

///.

years of universal success, at least

64 Art Nouvcau jewellery ortered the greatest opportunity tor tantasy. In Rene Lalique's pendant of 190 naturalistic and stylized shapes are inextricably combined. The flowing lines arc at once the steins of flowers and a woman's hair; at the bottom, like some exotic fruit, hangs a pearl 1

6$ (left) A brooch by Wilhclm Lucas von Lranach combines many favourite Art Nouveau motifs - insects, sea-creatures, intertwining lines and an atmosphere of corruption and menace - to show a butterfly strangled by an octopus

66 (right) A brooch by Lalique gold tail set with moonstones

///.

894) in the

form of a peacock,

its

enamelled

by nature and by styHzation in Art Nouveau. From Germany came brooch by Wilhelm Lucas von Cranach. It represents an

Lalique's pendant and brooch, the part played

the part ///.

the

a butterfly, though it can just as well be seen perhaps seen in that way to greater advantage. It is an exquisite display of red, green and blue enamel with baroque pearls and small precious and semi-precious stones. In Lalique's brooch the enamelled peacock's neck rises out of

octopus strangling abstractly

///.

and

of gold and moonstone. With jewellery we have in two dimensions to Art Nouveau in the round. There was no reason why the principle of eternal undulations should not be applied to three dimensions. All materials were indeed affected. In Victor Prouve's bronze bowl feathers

moved from Art Nouveau

67 Brown-glazed earthenware vase by Georges Hocnstchcl ot about 1901 the creamy overglaze is allowed to drip down at random :

:^-ii<;

t • ,'r" ^

///.

Ni{fht of 1894 flowing hair takes the place of Mackniurdo's or Obrist's stalks and leaves, Lalique's feathers and Oanach's tentacles.

Every time what tempted the craftsman were natural

elements lending themselves to Art Nouveau sinuosity. ///.

///.

Ceramics and especially glass were ideal media for Art Nouveau. Georges Hoentschel's dark brown earthenware vase 90 1 with the off- whites of its daringly accidental runningglaze is an example of the former; the brothers Daum's bottle-shaped vase of 1893 with crocuses at the bottom and the glaze running down the high neck, and of course the famous Favrile glass of Louis C. Tiffany are examples of the latter. Tiffany also began as a painter. He turned to decorative and stained glass, and in 1893 started a glass blowing department. The swaying, exceedingly attenuated forms of his vases and their subtle, never wholly calculated, shot colours made them a pattern for Europe as well, and Karl Koepping's glass - Koepping again was a painter at first - is clearly in the first place

of c.

down

inspired

Tiffany's.

68 (below left) Bronze bowl by Victor Prouve (sec III. yj) Ni^ht, 1894. Iri the flowing hair tiny figures are tossed as if

on waves of the

sea

69-71 Glass was drawn into the shapes of Art Nouveau. Tiffany {bcloip centre, vase of a.

1900) made it iridescent; the brothers Daum, in a purple vase of 1893 called 'Sorrow-

ing

Autumn

(below),

Crocuses'

combined

crisply cut

flowers with flowing drips of molten glass. Koepping's wine-glasses

are

flowers

bowls held between leaves on frail stems (right),

their

Wood

tractable material, and niiich Art Nouveau from the conflict between its nature and the expressive desire of Art Nouveau. One way to avoid the conflict was to confine the decoration to curves on flat surfaces. But as a rule, and most dedicatedly in France, the material was forced to obey the style. France, in fact, is the country which in the end carried on longest in Art Nouveau. There were two centres: Paris, of course, and Nancy. That a provincial capital should vie with the national capital was an improbable thing to happen in so metropolitan a civiHzation as that of the rising twentieth century. However, the case is matched by that of Glasgow. Nancy is the town of Galle and of a group of other craftsmenis

a less

furniture suffers

manufacturers Ills.

74, 75

all at first

affected

Galle's faith in nature as the

source of ornament. Louis Majorelle's after Galle's.

It is

characteristic

most familiar name needed to make model his pieces in clay

of the

Art Nouveau furniture that he used to before they were made of timber.

the

efforts

72 Simplicity and solidity: William Morris's ideals, represented by his own patterns and Philip Webb's oak furniture (after 1858). The rushseated chairs (see also III. g) were especially popular in the 1870s and after

73 Excess and artifice: dining-room of cedar by Eugene Vallin for a client Nancy (1903-6). The leather panels, ceiling and sideboard carvings are by Prouve, the glass by Dauni, and the copper chandelier by Vallin himself

Art Nouveau

like the Baroque made claims to the CjcsamtOnly rarely can one do justice to an individual piece without knowing of its intended context. That alone debarred it or should have debarred it from quantity production. With

kunstwerk.

the vandalism typical of sons against th^ generation ot their

most of the Art Nouveau ensembles have been destroyed. lucky that the Musee de TEcole de Nancy could reassemble, even if not without alteration and reductions, a complete dining-room by Eugene Vallin. This was begun only in 1903,

fathers, It is

///.

74 Emile Galle's great Butterfly Bed of 1904, which again shows the fashion for insects, was his last work. He watched its completion from an invalid chair and died in the

at a

moment when

same year

were already room and live in, one can understand why. Such one soon. Furniture ought to be a

the other leading countries

moving away from Art Nouveau. trying

out

as a place to

violent expression tires

In looking at this

background. Here we feel intruders. Also there is the constant clash between function and form - table legs awkwardly lumpy at the foot, doors and shelf recess of bosomy shape. And fmally, one may well worry about wood made to perform ceramic or metallic curves.

One of the most daring cases is the music room by Alexandre Charpentier, a sculptor before he became a decorator. 82

The

music-stand

illustrated

dimensional

Art

Nouveau

pure curve,

example of the spatially

three-

ingenious

///.

and

functionally dubious. Charpentier belonged to the Parisian

group Les Cinq, soon (by the accession of Plumet) to become Les Six. They formed one centre of the crafts revival in Paris, the other was Bing's shop L'Art Nouveau, a more international centre of course. Among the designers specially connected with Bing, Eugene Gaillard in his later work showed one French way out of the impasse of Art Nouveau. He said already in 1906 that furniture should express its function, that it should be in harmony with the material and that curves should be used decoratively only. His furniture is indeed a return to the principles and forms of the most refmed French eighteenth-century furniture, even if he never stooped to imitation. 75 (left) Louis Majorellc modelled his furniture in clay, and the freedom thus obtained is evident in his table (1902) of mahogany, tamarind and gilded bronze

76 (ri^ht) Alexandre Charpentier went further still in this swirling musicstand of hornbeam, part of an ensemble of 1901. Both designs would be more suitable for metal or plastic

â&#x20AC;˘^â&#x20AC;˘iyv-v*" '^:^

///.

After these French pieces van dc Vcldc's great desk of 1896 impressive in its radicaHsni and its tautness. There is neither

the

elephantnie

massiveness of ValHn's

Gaillard's half-concealed

///.

7()

///.

dining

sympathy with the

room nor Van

classic past.

de Velde impressed Germany much when he first showed in 1897. Indeed Germany started a little later than Belgium and France, but for a short time men of strong personality joined Art Nouveau and produced outstanding work. Otto Eckmann, better known as a typographer and decorator of books, designed furniture for the Grand Duke of Hessen about 1 898, surprisingly structural, considering his free use of natural forms in the books he decorated. The solution of the seeming contradiction must be van de Velde. Richard Riemerschmid's chairs are more English in their inspiration, and he was indeed among those who, when he turned away from Art Nouveau, did so for social as well as aesthetic reasons. The greatest ornamental originality in

77 The more chaste furniture of Eugene Gaillard, such as this rosewood canape of 191 1, paraphrases classic French furniture in Art Nouveau language

desk by Henri van de Velde, 1 896 - clean and functional of the opulent Art Nouveau curves

in its general

effect in spite

79, 80 Armchairs by Otto Eckmann (1900, schmid (1903, right)

left)

and Richard Ricnicr-

///.

Germany was August EndelFs, as we shall see in another context later. What is known of his furniture has a curious plastic quality - plastic in the true English sense of the word - quite different from anything so far examined. The scrolls at the ends of the arms of the chair illustrated arc particularly convincing, both aesthetically and functionally. Only one other designer of furniture did likewise, and he was neither German nor French nor English, nor indeed a furniture designer. Antoni Gaudi's chairs for the Casa Cal vet of 896- 904 have the same qualities as Endell's but driven to an extreme. They arc Art Nouveau in that they shun the straight line, shun all relation to the past and also in that they are fanatically personal. The bone-like formation of the elements is all Gaudi's. His most surprising furniture is that for the chapel of the Colonia Giiell at Santa Coloma de Cervello on which he worked from 1898 till 1914. Here is one of the few cases of design trying to do what painting was doing at the same moment, that is, scrapping all the agreed conventions of art. The brutality of 1

Ills.

81, 82

///.

genuine sculptural armchair of 1899 (III. 8j, ri^ht), completely free in Gaudi's chairs for the Casa Calvet of 1 8961904 (below left). Gaudi's benches for Sta "4

Furniture with

quality

- restrained

in Endell's

Coloma deCcrwcWo ( below see also III. 106) stand like insects on their rough iron legs ,

!''

MlWIiWfcv

85 Porch of the crypt of Sta Coloma de Cervello, by Gaudi (i 898-1 914). materials are rough stone, brick, cement, columnar basalt (pillar on the left), and tiles laid edge to edge in the vaults. Details were devised on the

The

spot rather than at the drawing-board

///. ///.

the iron undercarriage of these benches, especially the feet, and of the seats themselves, goes indeed beyond Art Nouveau. Gaudfs architecture poses even more urgently the problem of how far Art Nouveau as a term with an analysable, useful meaning can be stretched. That he is first and foremost Gaudi there can be no question. The ironwork of the Casa Vicens and the portal of the Palau Giiell have already demonstrated that. But that his views and those of Art Nouveau coincided in many ways is patent. However, there is a greater problem involved here. It has been denied by more than one scholar that Art Nouveau

86 Gaudi covered the writhing benches that surrounded the with brilHant chips ot tile, creating a restless, pla\ hil landscape

(iiiell

Park

89 (ni^ht) fac^adc

The

of the

Atelier Elvira,

Munich, by August Eiidell.

The

reliefs in

large

red and

turquoise stucco, shapes and twisted glazingbars set the flat

window

surface in

87 In the Ateher Elvira (1896, destroyed in 1944) August Endell was obviously influenced by Horta's stair (III. 88 below); the staircase seems to float up like the stem of some water-plant surrounded by tendrils, with an unexpected accent in the spiky spray of the light fixture

88 In the staircase of no. 6 rue

Paul-Emile Janson (1892-3), in Brussels, Horta exploited both the strength of iron - in the supporting column - and its

flowing

malleability, in the freelines

'capital'

of the handrail and

which

are repeated in paint and mosaic

motion

architecture exists at

all. It

has been argued that Art

Nouveau

was no more than a decorative fashion, lasting hardly more than ten years and hence not deserving the attention it has recently been given. None of these contentions can be maintained. It might be worth looking at a number of exteriors and interiors

Gaudi.

of buildmgs

The

best start

in is

systematic order culminating in

Endell's Atelier Elvira in

Munich,

A flat facade is made Art Nouveau

///.

by means of a huge abstract ornament of a crustaceous kind, but surely not only by this. The asymmetrical fenestration, the tops of the windows and doorway like loopcdup curtains and the glazing bars all play their part. And when you entered the house, a stair hall received you in which all

III.

unfortunately not preserved. primarily,

it is

true,

the forms undulated, and not only those applied to the walls.

90 Horta, the leading Art Nouveau architect of Belgium, built the Hotel Solvay for a wealthy client between 1 895 and 1900. The fa<;ade is a complex arrangement of flat and curved surfaces, with the ornament seeming to grow out of the material

91, 92 Inside, the stair again has Horta's brilUant ironwork (even the

studs are part of the design),

and stained

glass (below) in the

same

C^^H^*

"^^^Mw"

mood

~\ B w~

ii^^^r^

^^^^^3^^

93 Horta's own house, in the rue Americaine, Brussels (1898-9): iron

supports curl like tendrils

around the balconies, and the pillars leaf out as in his earHer stair

(III.

88)

The handrail of the staircase, the newel post and Hght fitting rocketing up from the post - all this is architectural, that is, That the famous and at the time publicized staircase in Horta's house in the rue Paul-Emile Janson was the pattern is evident, and that staircase with its slender iron pillar also is genuinely architectural. Admittedly exteriors were not often up to the novelties of the interiors - as had been the case of the Atelier Elvira - but if one looks at the facade of Horta's own house of 1898-9, or the former Hotel Solvay of 1 895-1900, one sees again the same spindliness of iron supports, the same play of pliable iron decoration round them and the same sense of transparency as three-dimensional

///.

llh

90, 93

and articulating inner space.

inside.

94 Auditorium of Horta's Maison du Peuple (designed in 1896 as a vast social the iron framework is fully exposed, but softened by Horta's genius for curving metalwork

centre)

Altogether, the role of iron in Art

enough

to deserve a paragraph. Iron

Nouveau a

interesting

decorative

well as

had recognized that and suggested its use in both capacities in the same buildings. He was the fountain head. Then, and independent of him, iron and structural material. Viollet-le-Duc

later steel, externally in

conjunction with

glass,

became

///.

the

most technically suitable material for the factory, the warehouse and the office building. The quality which recommended it was that it lent itself to the unmitigated grid. This was an argument in itself not of an aesthetic nature, though the twentieth century discovered the aesthetic possibilities of the grid. But Art Nouveau must retain the credit for the discovery of the aesthetic possibilities o{ iron and glass - even if these qualities have nothing to do with those of the grid. Art Nouveau adored lightness, attenuation, transparency and o{ course sinuosity. Iron meant thin members and ductility; iron and glass used externally produced the same transparency obtained internally by iron alone. Horta's Maison du Peuple of 1896-9 was the Art

Ills.

g4, 93

f / .^j*-

^'Hi .ijM.''(

)if^

///.

Ncnivcau version of the American office building - both dependent on iron, but in exactly opposite ways, hi America the steel controls structure and thereby appearance, though the fa(;"ades are of stone cladding the steel; in the Maison du Peuple the iron frame is visible, and iron provides the music playing round the frame and embroidering on the eternal Art Nouveau theme of the curve which also is that of the fa<;:ade as a whole. The rhythm of iron, glass, steel and brick is restless and the building does not read as a whole. In the great hall inside, iron is exposed everywhere, and yet the effect is not utilitarian, largely again thanks to the use of curving members. The most daringly glazed commercial building of those years was Bernhard Sehring's Tietz Department Store in Berlin of 1898, which consists of three broad stone bays, left, right and centre, exuberantly Baroque and not at all Art Nouveau in their details, and all the rest glass with the thinnest iron verticals and horizontals. 95 Facade of the Maison du Peuple in Brussels, by Horta (1896-9, demolished in 1965-6), with curving walls of iron and glass between brick panels

•^

r^--'^^^.^8^«.^i'ai xr^"^^^ mn

"^S^

Aik ^bk mitt^^m

*.-.."

**fci^

•

rpi

'->^

lij

s^.

iWFiK

96 Sehring's Tictz Department Store in Berlin of 1898 included vast walls of iron-framed glass; the masonry sections are conventicMial neo-Baroque

with the keenest sense of the potenof the new materials was Hector Guimard. It was a fine show of a sense of topicaHty that the Paris Metro allowed him for the relatively new purpose of a metropolitan underpavement In France the architect

tiahties

railway to design exclusively Ills.

97, gS

tenor

indeed

new

material.

introduction to

The

general

fast transport.

bossy and bony - more similar to Alfred of more than ten years before than to anyone else's. However, the refusal to entertain straight Hues anywhere and the sense of inventiveness all through place them firmly in Art Nouveau. Guimard's magnum opus, the Castel Beranger of 1897-8, on the other hand is in its facades not Art Nouveau.

But the

///.

in the

as light as befits the

Gilbert's

details are

(IcTRorouTAfn nETONS 1 '

[

eilipii

i, â&#x20AC;˘^

â&#x20AC;˘^

The entrances designed by Hector Guimard for the Pans Metri> are today probably the most insistent survivors from the age of Art Nouveau. Built between 1899 and 1904 thev are still t-fTec rive signposts 97, 98

99-100 Guimard's ornament is as distinctive as

Horta's

99 (left) Detail of a Metro entrance by Guimard, a light in a

amber

glass set in

strange organic bud-

shape of green-fmished cast iron

100 (opposite) Terracotta panels in the entrance to the Castel Beranger, Guimard's block of flats in Paris (1897-8); though the forms are still unmistakably 'Belle Epoque' they have no basis in nature

.^/.-

^^m

9 ^>^ iTTr? ff UHH W'^

HuMliM'fe;'! ^^i.if«ii«-<^f/ UM f fflitipffl 1

EmhII^iMI mm ^i'^

I0I-2 Two details from Guimard's Castel Berangcr: (right) an eroded-looking seahorse shape of cast iron; and (left) the glass-brick wall of the staircase, set in an iron frame, foreshadowing long before Bruno Taut's Glass

House

(III.

180) a favourite twenties and

motif o[ the thirties

jumble of motifs is original, even forcedly so, but it is angular, and conventional in many details. The ironwork of the main doors on the other hand and the terracotta panels in the entrance are Art Nouveau and the latter are, moreover, most daring in their demonstration of pure abstraction. A rarely-seen iron detail from the top of the house reminds one of Its

static, solid

100

III.

102

III.

101

who

ventured into pure abstraction, Endcll in his Elvira 'rocaille'. In fact even some of the dragon connotations are the same. Yet more amazing historically is the wall of the staircase at the back, a wall of heavy double-curved glass panels of alternating shapes whose very irregularity of surface does what in the terracotta panels had to be done by the another architect

///.

craftsman's will.

Guimard's delight in materials and unexpected cflects to be obtained from them and even some of Ciuimard's forms are the 103

103 Plan of the ground floor of the Casa Mila by Gaudi, begun in 1905. This remained flexible till the last, with partition walls inserted only after the building was complete

only causeway by which we can safely reach Gaudi. There are few other communications, and his originality might indeed not have become quite so extreme if it had not been for his working in the comparative isolation of Barcelona and working for a clientele nationally disposed in favour of fantastical architecture. Indeed the extremes of Plateresque and Churrigueresque are hardly less bewildering than those of Gaudi. These he must have known, but they do not seem to have inspired him. On the other hand he must have been impressed by the Mohammedan style of southern Spain as well as that of folk building in Morocco. And he must also have seen in the journals how Art Nouveau triumphed in France, and some of the interior details in his two blocks of flats, the Casa Batllo and the Casa Mila, are indeed entirely French Art Nouveau, just as the use of concrete trees - leafless of course - in the Giiell Park

of Hennebique's, the French concrete fanatic. Still, originality remains, but - at least in the Casa Batllo and the Casa Mila, both late works, begun in 1905 - it is an originality within the framework of Art Nouveau.

a conceit

his Ills.

103-3

overwhelming

104 Detail of the fac^adc of Gaudi's Casa Mila, of dark, pitted stone- deliberately wave-like, with seaweed balconies

.•At-/'?

What Ills.

104, 103

after

all is it

that startles

comes upon them unprepared

one

in the

in these fa(;:ades as

Paseo de Gracia?

one

A whole

and somewhat menacing flow - like carved out by the sea, say others; like the face of a long-disused quarry, yet others. So here is undulation, and here is the affinity with nature 'structurized', as van de Velde once called it. Here also - and this needs saying now at last - is that disregard for functional fac^ade in a slow, sluggish

lava,

some people have

said; as if

advantages that did such disservice to Art Nouveau in buildings and furnishings everywhere. Balcony railings which stab at you

and consistently curved walls against which no one's furniture

two examples. What elevates two late Gaudi buildings above those of other architects of the same moment is their restless force, their sense of masses in motion and their single-mindedness. The plan of the Casa Mila to which reference has already been made is ultimate proof that Art Nouveau principles could be applied to space as well as will stand satisfactorily are only

these

///.

and volume. placing of Gaudi within European Art Nouveau is relatively easy as long as one confmes oneself to his work after 1903. But three years earlier he had started on the Giiell Park and five years earlier on the chapel of Santa Coloma de Cervello line

The

on an

industrial estate also belonging to his patron Eusebio

Giiell. In the ///.

chapel there are no undulating lines;

all is

sharp,

But all is also in its own idiom as unexpected as the houses in the Paseo de Gracia. If one looks for comparisons one is reminded rather of German Expressionism of the 1920s in its wildest Dr Caligari dreams - than of Art Nouveau. As far as Art Nouveau was opposition to the past and opposition to angular, aggressive.

the order of right-angles, Santa

Coloma of

course qualifies.

As far as Art Nouveau was a challenging show of individualism, it

also qualifies.

And that is perhaps enough. The little building,

abandoned before it was completed, is in its interpenetration of outer and inner spaces bolder than anything Frank Lloyd Wright had done or was ever to do in pursuit of spatial confluence. The walls are a seemingly arbitrary zigzag, though At the Casa Batllo (1905-7) Gaudi refaced an older building with coloured adding the rippling stone entrance and bay-windows and spiky, sinister iron balconies, and finishing with a steep roof o{ tiles grading from orange to 105

tiles,

blue-green

an axiality from entrance to altar

is preserved. But the approach wholly asyni metrical, and even the round piers inside do not correspond left with right. Moreover, supports are set at raking angles, they are built up here of brick, there of stones; they are roughly shaped or frankly shapeless, and they carry ribs whose details seem to have been decided not at the office, beforehand, but on the spot, as work went on. is

Ills.

83, 106

///.

108

This is indeed true of the very similar structures connected with the Giiell Park as well. Here also you fmd twisted supports set diagonally, fairly normal but leaning Doric columns, stalactite vaults, quite apart from the dead trees of concrete, and quite apart from the enchanting back of the long seat running all along the open space at the top where nannies sit and children play. This back, writhing and drooping like a serpent or some antediluvian monster, is yet gay, by virtue of its delicious colours, bright, happy colours, any number of them and in haphazard relations. The seat is faced with faience and tiles, and here as well as on the roofs of his houses and indeed on the pinnacles of his great church, the Sagrada Familia, broken cups and saucers, broken floor tiles and wall tiles and chips of all kinds

Again Gaudi is closer to Picasso there than to the other of Art Nouveau. The Sagrada FamiHa spans Gaudi's whole hfe. He dedicated his powers more and more to it and in the end to the exclusion of anything else. For Gaudi was an unquestioning Catholic. Religion was the centre of his life, and the aestheticism of much are used.

practitioners

Ills.

107, 108

of Art Nouveau experimenting is totally absent in him. In 1884 he was put in charge of a neo-Gothic buildmg only just begun. He continued it in that style and gradually turned freer and bolder. As one looks at the great facade of the south transept, one can watch the process of liberation. Below there are still three tall gabled portals on the French Gothic cathedral pattern, and it is only the decoration encrusting it that is transformed into rockery and naturahstic leaf-work. The towers are without precedent, but they were only started in 1903. And as for the pinnacles, once again, it seems impossible to believe that 108

-^'W^^fi

^^Âť.

Âť

io6 In the crypt of Santa Coloma dc Cervello, begun in 189S, Ciaudi's delight in variety of planes, textures and materials is obvious; his engineering instinct led him to the structurally efficient angles of walls and supports.

also

designed the benches

they can be the drawings.

(see

III.

84)

work of craftsmen working from

architect's

///.

Gaudi was not an architect in the sense in which the profession had estabhshed itself in the nineteenth century and was going to be run in the twentieth. He was not a professional man working in an office. He was essentially still the medieval craftsman whose fmal decision could only be taken as he watched over the execution o{ what he had perhaps sketched out on paper but never made final, hi him one ideal of William Morris had come true. What he built was 'by the people for the people' and no doubt 'ajoy for the maker', i.e., the actual mason, as well. 107, 108 (followin<^pa{ie<)

about 1887

in a free

The transept front ofClaudf's Sagrada Familia was begun

paraphrase of Ciothic, and ended,

the twenties, in fantastic cubist pinnacles (rii^ht)

loS

109 Gaudi's Palau Giicll (1844-9), two arches with massive ironwork in the Catalan tradition. Gaudi used parabohc arches - the shape of the future both decoratively and structurally

It is

of importance to say

this

;

for recently

Gaudi has been

hailed as a pioneer of twentieth-century structure, a forerunner

of Nervi. But whereas, in the field of new shapes and materials he points forward indeed, his use of complicated models to experiment with strains and stresses is not that of the engineerarchitect of our age at all. On the contrary, it is still that of the individualist-craftsman, the outsider, the lonely, do-it-yourself

inventor.

And

extreme individualism once again Gaudi was Nouveau. For Art Nouveau was an outbreak of individualism first and foremost. It depended for success entirely on the personal force and sensibility of a designer or craftsman. What could be communicated of it, is what ruined it so quickly. in this

part of Art

The 112

style

of Schinkel, the

style

of Semper, the

style

of Pearson,

the style of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts could be taught and used

with impunity by the rank and file. Commercialized van de Velde and Tiffany is a disaster. Commercialized (iaudi was hardly attempted. This individualism ties Art Nouveau to the century at whose end it stands. So does its insistence on craft and its antipathy against industry. So fmally does its delight in the precious or at least the telling material.

But Art Nouveau straddles the boundary line between the centuries, and its historical significance lies in those of its innovations which pointed forward. They are, as has been said

two

in these pages

more than

once,

its

refusal to continue

historicism of the nineteenth century,

own

inventiveness, and

its

courage

with the

in trusting

its

concern with objects for use rather

than with paintings and statues.

Entrance to the Giiell Park, begun in 1900. The stairs, flanked by surrounded a serpent fountain; they lead to the Market Hall with Doric colonnade

pavilions, its

Ill In Britain a style of chaste straight Unes rivalled and indeed took the place of the sensuous curves of Continental Art Nouveau. This desk by Mackmurdo dates from 1886

114

CHAPTER THREE

New

Impetus from England

It is in its concern with objects for use that Art Nouveau was most decisively inspired by England. The n>essage of William Morris was heeded everywhere. In other ways the relations between the Enghsh and the Continental developments of the 1 890s are more complex. They deserve more than one close look. The situation, it must be remembered, was that in the art of design had reached its richest, most 1 880s Morris's balanced maturity. A synthesis between nature and stylization was achieved which has never been outdone. At the same time in architecture Webb and Shaw had, at any rate in the field of domestic building, defeated Victorian pomposity and reintroduced a human scale and sensitive or at least telling details. And already before 1890 Morris as well as Shaw and Webb had their successors. The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society had started and the progressive architectural journals had begun to illustrate the designs of Voysey, of Ernest Newton, Ricardo and others. Meanwhile, however, this Arts and Crafts movement had also benefited from those among the young who wanted to go beyond the enlightened traditionalism of Morris and Shaw. Mackmurdo, as we have seen, was their leader, and Mackmurdo with his Wren title-page of 1 883 had started Art Nouveau. The effect of the journal of his Century Guild, the Hohhy Horse, had been great, and English book art right on to Beardsley was indebted to it. But where Continental Art Nouveau of the 890s acknowledged this debt freely and developed its own national versions out of EngUsh precedent, England itself turned away from it and followed Morris and Shaw rather than Art Nouveau. Indeed, and this is perhaps the most surprising aspect of Mackmurdo's situation, he himself, when it came to designing buildings and furniture, did not apply the siiuiositv lU'his book1

115

///.

j^o

work and textiles. The early ///. ///.

112

sufficient

ornament

evidence -

chair

which some regard - without in i88r''-^ has, apart from

designed

directly connected with that of the

Wren

title-page,

curvaceous back, but the Httle desk of 1886 and the

///.

Ill

at least a

///.

;/j

exhibition stand at Liverpool of the same year are entirely rational

and rectangular.

original as the proto-Art their originality

It is

true they are in their

Nouveau of a few

their slender square posts

own way

years before, but

and the curious

far-

projecting hats or pieces of cornice each of them carries.

112 In this chair, designed in the early eighties,

Mackmurdo

used a traditional shape but with the swirling plant forms

of his

influential

m\e-p2Lge( see

III.

27)

113 By 1886 Mackmurdo had moved on to the equally revolutionary angularity of the Century Guild exhibition stand its thin vertical posts and 'mortar-board' tops were soon taken up - via Voysey and Mackintosh - as far awav as Austria and Sweden :

This motif in particular influenced Voysey and Mackintosh in their

beginnings, and Voysey was also strongly influenced by

Mackmurdo

in his early textile designs. Charles F.

Voysey must be regarded

Annesley

the central figure in English

architecture and design during the

two decades around

1900.

His style of domestic architecture was complete by 1890. In 1 89 1 he built a small studio house in West Kensington, London,

and there already are the low, comfortable, spreading character, the bands of unmoulded window openings and of bare wall, the big, tapering chimneystacks. There is no longer even as

///.

114

nnf

West Kensington, London, by Voysey ( 89 an exercise in Note the pebbledash rendering, broad eaves and sloping buttresses - all Voysey trademarks 1 1

4 Studio in

1 )

rational design devoid of ornament.

115, 116 Voysey specialized in country houses Broadleys on Lake Windermere (right), of 1898, is remarkable for its plain bay windows with unmoulded mullions. The entrance of Vodin House, Pyrford Common, ;

Surrey, of 1902 (below

right), carries this simplicity

even further

much of period

details as there had been in Shaw and Webb, but there remains all the same a strong period flavour, a flavour of the Tudor or Stuart cottage or manor house. The house is in its ow^n way as original as Morris's designs, but hardly more

and shortly after 1900 Voysey was extremely successful as a designer of private houses of moderate size, and for good reasons; for his plans are easy and at the same time his houses fit their setting, and their simple geometry was refreshing; they were eminently reasonable, unradical and original. In the late nineties

Ills.

113, 116

unexacting. 118

'^l^^wM^^^»r

U* j#? "'"

ykLi

r-;

•• .

^^S^^^^^^^^3^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l

Others

England

at the

same moment were bolder, none

more so than E. S. Prior, W. R. Lethaby, and the much younger Edwin Lutyens. Prior, more distinguished as a scholar than as an architect, built a few houses between about 1895 and 1905 which combine Voysey's sixteenth- or seventeenth-century ///.

iiy

sympathy with

Occasionally the

bits

use of mixed local materials. of brick and the pebbles used in the raw are almost reminiscent of Gaudi. Lutyens was a man of brilliant talents who later turned away from the progressive developments and led the retreat into the grand manner which Shaw himself had started in his buildings after 1 890. This neo-Baroque fanatical

117 Home Place, Norfolk, by E.S. Prior (1904-6). Prior tried hard to revive local styles and local materials, preferring to be known as a 'builder' rather than an architect, but at Home Place his exotic mixture of flint, tile and brick takes him far from any true vernacular - almost into the realm

of Gaudf

early work of Edwin Lutyens has as much wit as Norman Shaw's prodigious architectural inventiveness. Tigbourne Court, Surrey (1897) is Lutyens at his best. Note the dramatic massing of the whole, the relation of the three gables to the excessively high chimney-stacks, and such details as the rusticated stonework with smooth bandini^ 1 1

and

The a

or neo-Classicism need not concern us here.

reigned in

otficial

Such public buildings as Nyrop's Town Hall at Copenhagen, begun in 1893, and Berlage's Exchange of Amsterdam of 1898 are highly exceptional in their free handling of traditional materials, and Nyrop at least stayed on safer ground even than Voysey. Of Lutyens' talents and his temptations into drama the finest show is Tigbourne Court of 1897. architecture

nearly

everywhere.

111

Ills.

III.

IQ, 120

llS

_d '.A

^^^gfp'^ti

•h

fi ^^0'

120 Copenhagen Town Hall by Martin Nyrop, 1892-1905. Ihc tavadc and spacious glazed courtyard still have many motifs trom the Dutch sixteenth and early seventeenth century, but they arc handled as freely as Voysey handled his Tudor motifs

119 (left) Interior of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, iSv-^ ivu.s. IJerlagc used traditional red brick with stone dressings in a deliberately massive. angular style; the vast iron roof is exposed and unorn.imcnted

••<!:•

B?!"

At is

least as

dramatic, but without any of Lutyens' playfulness

the church designed

by W.R.Lcthaby

Brockhainpton

dating from 1900-2. Lethaby, after Morris the most con-

on architecture and design in England, gave up practising altogether after Brockhampton in order to teach at the London Central School of Arts and Crafts which was the most progressive school of those years anywhere. Lethaby in his writings recommended the step from craft to industrial design, a step which Voysey and others already had taken as practising designers. But only Lethaby in England saw that more was concerned than a matter of production techniques.

///.

121

///.

122

structive thinker

121 (left) Interior of All Saints, Brockhampton-by-Ross, Herefordshire, by W.R. Lethaby (1900-2). The tunnel-vault, of a

shape more Expressionist than Gothic, is of concrete. With an

ambivalence characteristic of the Arts and Crafts, it is thatched on the outside

122 Clock designed by C.F. A.

Voysey about with ivory

crown

inlay.

1906, of ebony

The openwork

lined with yellow silk a brass ball like

and topped by

those

stands

on 1

1^;

123-5

An elegant simplicity of line characterized

the best English products.

Voysey designed silver as chaste as his houses - above r^i^ht, a teapot of c 1896 - and Ashbee was famous also on the Continent for such pieces as this with red-enamelled cover; its stone-set Gimson designed beautifullymade inlaid furniture: his cabinet and stand of 1908 (opposite), like the ball feet of Ashbee's dish, derives ultimately from the seventeenth century silver dish (i

knob and

899-1900, above

left)

ball feet are characteristic. Ernest

A style for industrial design was visualized by Lethaby but

was

developed in practice in other countries. As far as the style is concerned, it mattered little whether what Voysey designed was in the end made by the craftsman or the manufacturer. The style is moderate, sensible, always graceful, whether in furniture or in textiles or in metalwork. The same applies to other architects, designers and craftsmen.

chair such as that

of Hesse

in 1898

made by Baillic Scott good example, also

for the Cirand

Duke

in the design

of the

///.

covering of the back which has abandoned the Art Nouvcau way of Mackmurdo while keeping the sense of the pretty flat pattern. Another example is the exquisite cabinets designed by Ernest Gimson. They also are in no demonstrative way novel, yet in no way imitative, and they are a triumph of revived

However, the cabinet illustrated dates from 908, and by then, on the Continent, had lost all topicality. Gimson was trained as an architect and designed a tew houses before he turned entirely to the crafts. The combination is characteristic

craftsmanship.

1-27

///.

^-'J

of Britain Noiiveau,

at that it

moment.

was the

the Continent, in terms of Art

painters rather

Britain the message could be heard

already at the

Webb-Shaw

Movement had been

///.

III

124 126

who

Hstened to Morris, hi

by the

architects, because

stage the alHance with the Morris

One

of the more interesting cases is that of C. R. Ashbee who designed houses of considerable originality, though obviously inspired by Shaw, and founded a Guild and School of Handicraft having learned the Morris lesson. The school operated at first in the East End of London, later at Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds; for Ashbee was keenly interested in social reform too. It is worth comparing the work of his craftsmen about 1900 with Continental work at the Paris Exhibition. What appears is that in furniture and metalwork for use Ashbee was entirely on the Voysey side, but in jewellery he comes remarkably close to Art Nouveau - a typically English

established.

compromise.

126 Pendant by C.R. Ashbee, about 1900, of gold and silver enamelled and set with pale

semi-precious stones. Its rendering of a peacock, above a characteristic Art Nouveau drop, may be compared with Lalique's (III. 66)

127 Silver pendant designed by C'harles Rennie Mackiniosli and made by wife Margaret Macdonald in 1902. It represents a flight of birds through storm-clouds, with raindrops of pearls on thin silver wires

his

There was no compromise across the border in Scotland, where, suddenly, at the beginning of the 1S90S, a group of architect-designers sprang up converting what they knew oi Voysey and others in England and of work on the Continent too (for The Studio kept readers up-to-date) into an idiom entirely their own, as original and as radical as Art Nouveau, but never so contorted. Or at least not when they had reached maturity. The leader of the group was Charles Rennie Mackintosh, eleven years younger tlian Voysey, seventeen years younger than Mackmurdo. hi addition there were his wife and her sister - the sisters Macdonald - his brother-in-law 129

///.

127

McNair, and ///.

12S

The diploma document of Mackinis contorted indeed. The nearest parallel sombre nudes is Toorop in Holland, and their few

others.

tosh, datable to 1893,

to these lean,

completely abstract bands of hair, their draperies and trees reduced to one leaf (or fruit) on each upward growing branch are entirely Mackintosh's. In the next few years they did other ///.

izg

stationery,

and the

ladies did repousse

work

as well.

Then

Mackintosh's great opportunity came. In 1896 he won the competition for a new building for the Glasgow School of Art,

and the building was erected

in 1 897-1909. In 1897 T^^^^' Studio published an illustrated article on the group. In 1900 they exhibited in Vienna, in 1902 in Turin. In 1901 Mackintosh went

competition set by a German publisher - designing a house for a lover of art. Glasgow was in fact destined to fmd more resonance on the Continent than in England. in for a

128 Mackintosh designed this diploma for the Glasgow School of Art Club - the year in which Toorop's The Three Brides appeared in The Studio. The influence is obvious, but Mackintosh's sparseness and angularity are already unmistakable. Note too the compressed lettering in 1893

â&#x20AC;˘-V

129 Mirror-franic ot pure beaten tin by Mackintc^sli's wife Margaret and her sister Frances Macdonald. It takes its title. Honesty, and its pattern troni a plant; the bodies of the women at either side are reduced to eliMigated abstract shapes {c. 1896; 29 ins. wide)

The

///.

732

///.

ijj

front of the Glasgow School of Art sets the theme for all Mackintosh was to do in the next ten or twelve years. Between 1900 and 191 1 he had plenty of work at Glasgow, a number of private houses, a number of tea-rooms, a school, and some interior work. England however remained closed to him, and from about 1910 his star waned. He was a fascinating but a difficult, erratic man, and he alienated clients' sympathies in the dour city of Glasgow. For the last fifteen years of his life he had hardly any commissions. The front of the School of Art is primarily a wall of large studio windows facing north. They have the English Tudor motif of mulHons and transoms, but the mullions and transoms are, like those of Voysey, completely unmoulded. The front would be a functional grid, if it were not for the entrance bay or frontispiece which is placed out of the centre and is a free, asymmetrical composition of elements of the Baroque, of the Scottish baronial past and of the Shaw-Voysey tradition. The pediment on the first floor belongs to the first, the bare turret to the second, the little oriel windows to the third. Moreover, the functional grid and the sturdiness of the centre are relieved by delightful, very thin metalwork, the area railings, the handrail of the balcony and especially the odd hooks carrying transparent, flower-like balls in front of the upper windows. Their practical purpose is to hold boards for window-cleaning, but their aesthetic purpose, like that of all the other metalwork is to provide a delicate screen of light and playful forms through which the stronger and sounder rest will be seen. Inside the building too there are transparent screens of slender wooden posts, sudden surprises of relations between forms, especially in the boardroom, where pilasters are treated as an abstract grid of a Mondrian kind below their perfectly harmless Ionic capitals, and on the roof, where shapes are almost as bold and abstract as Gaudi's and Le Corbusier's at Ronchamp, and there are again the most unexpected curligigs of metal. Once more only did Mackintosh design a building as functional as the School of Art - the Concert Hall for the Glasgow that

130 Entrance of the Glasgow School of Art, 1897-9, by Mackintosh. Above the is the window of the Director's study, and above that his studio. The main

door

studios have vast iron-framed

windows

mi t - ^

VBa>^

'^h,;vv.;riiÂť^t|!

\%-'\'Wf^r^ 131 Entrance lobby of the Glasgow School of Art, 1897-9. Mackintosh used bold forms covered with smooth cement, with small tile or metalwork inserts

room of the Glasgow School of Art (1907-9)

132 (right) Paraphrase of an Ionic pilaster in the board

/.x<:

A 133-5 Mackintosh's keen and completely modern sculptural sense appears lamp bracket over the stairs in the Glasgow School of Art (1897-9), (right) in the bold roughcast forms of an arch on the roof of the School of Art (c. 1907), and (below right) in his revolutionary and unrewarded design of 1898 for a circular concert hall with projecting dressing-rooms etc. (above) in a wrought-iron

///.

1J3

Exhibitionof 1 90 1, designed in 1898. It was to be circular and to hold over four thousand people. Mackintosh provided for a low building with a saucer dome on mighty buttresses. The supports were of iron, forming a span of about 165 feet. The organ, the artists' rooms and services were in an attachment with polygonal walls and curved parapets and roof The design gained no prize. 136

136-9 Mackintosh's furniture has the

same sureness and originahty architecture. Left, a

bedroom

his

chair with

back of flower-stencilled canvas, and hcloii' ri^ht, a table inlaid with ivory both off. 1900 and enamelled white, a fashion Mackintosh created. Opposite, a chair of 902 for a bedroom in Hill House, with Mackintosh's characteristic ladder slats going right down to the floor; and helow left, a table for the same house, of ebonized wood but with mother-ofpearl inlay, that carries geometrical intricacy even further 1

While the building was severely have had

///.

ij/ ij8

plain, the organ-case

would

the finesses and surprises of Mackintosh's furniture

What

Mackintosh furniture can be said to be a successful synthesis of the contrasting criteria of England and the Continent. Take, for example the two tables illustrated. One is as square as a Voysey and indeed more rigidly so - as design.

///.

all

close in

its

characterizes

grid as a cage

all

- the second

oval, with

two

small

oval set-in rose and ivory panels of abstract curves. Moreover, the

///.

14J

///.

ijg

first

table has a black finish, the second a glossy white one,

and white and rose, white and lilac, with black, and perhaps silver and mother-of-pearl became Mackintosh's favourite colours. These sophisticated, precious colours harmonize to perfection with the sophistication of his slender uprights and shallow curves. But the radicalism of ornamental abstraction and the lyrical softness of the colours also contradict each other, and it is the tension between the sensuous and the structural elements that makes Mackintosh's decoration unique. But as one looks at some of the most remarkable chairs by Mackintosh, one's conviction might well be shaken that his use of grids is indeed structural - in the sense of the skyscraper grids. The hard verticals and horizontals must have been an attraction to Mackintosh in themselves, an aesthetic counterpoint to his tense curves, and a safeguard that the frail blooms and feminine hues do not cloy. Mackintosh's fame was greater on the Continent than in Britain, let alone in England. The exhibition of 1900 in Vienna, the competition of 1901 in Germany where he was placed second - Baillie Scott won first prize - and the exhibition of 1902 in Turin have already been mentioned. What made it possible for the Continent to admire him was precisely what deprived him of patronage in England. He was too Art Nouveau, and England, after the few years of her Art Nouveau avatit la lettre had, as we have seen, turned away from everything outre. Indeed, when in 1900 some mostly French Art Nouveau furniture had been acquired from the Paris exhibition by a private donation for the Victoria and Albert Museum, protests 140

140 Joseph Olbnch's exhibition hall for the Secession Vienna, of 1S9S; massing of geometrical shapes. The 'dome' of metal leaves is echoed, in Olbrich's original drawing, by two equally round laurel bushes flanking

a clean

the door

were published saying that

in the press

'this

work

- one of them signed by

E. S. Prior,

neither right in principle nor does

evince a proper regard for the material employed'.^"* Those protested were of course right within their reference.

They were

also right

own

who

terms of

from the point of view of the

Art Nouveau can only be appreciated grounds - and its products might well be called unprincipled. But if these are looked at on aesthetic grounds, as they were in Austria and Germany, what a find the Glasgow group was. Vienna was particularly responsive, because Vienna in 1900 was, on her own, already on the way to a straightening out of the Art Nouveau fincies. Joseph Olbrich's building of 1898 for the Secession, the club of young artists in opposition, proves that. While it has a wrought-iron dome the intertwined laurel-branches of which are Art Nouveau, the arising twentieth century.

on purely

aesthetic

141

///.

140

dome

///.

141

also is a pure hemisphere, and the walls are sheer. What same Secession then showed of Mackintosh's work was a the confirmation and made converts - none more successful than Josef Hoffmann. Qw^^r^rZ-Hoffmann became his nickname, because of his preference for squares and rectangles in his decoration. Olbrich was called to Darmstadt by the Grand Duke of Hesse in 1899. The Grand Duke, a grandson of Queen Victoria, commissioned furniture and interior decoration for his palace from Ashbee and Baillie Scott. The German publishing house which had set the competition for the house of an art 142 (ri^ht) Competition design by

Mackintosh

for a

'house for an artlover', published in Germany in 1901 and highly influential

141 Josef Hoffmann,

master Otto Wagner, believed in like his

the complete unity of architecture, decor

and furnishings; a

(left)

rectihnear interior

designed

1900

!iS^iliiitB.tdtÂŤn

,:j lover and which pubHshed Mackintosh's design was also in

Darmstadt. Looking at Mackintosh's designs one can understand why he took Germany and Austria by storm. Here was the wilfulness and irregularity of Art Nouveau handled with an

unknown. But here was also a sense and smooth, unbroken surfaces which might well serve as a weapon to defeat Art Nouveau. Adherents of Art Nouveau and its just-emerging opponents could replenish their arsenals from the Haus eines Kunstfreutides. The ubiquity and intensity of British influence on the Continent during these years is evident. Its conflicting directions, however, require some comment. The influence started with Morris and the Domestic Revival. It stood then for a revived interest in craft, that is, the provision of objects for use, and for an appreciation of the modest, comfortable, middle-class house as against the pomposity of the public building and the rich man's villa. Then came the influence of Morris's Kclmscott Press on the one hand - which meant again a sense ot aesthetic exquisite fmesse previously

of slender, erect

verticals

143

///.

142

of the book - and of Mackniurdo and ultimately Bcardsley on the other, and this encouraged Art Nouveau rather than responsibility. Voysey again stood for reason, domestic comfort and prettiness in the design of interior furnishings; Ashbee and Baillie Scott a little more floridly for the same. Mackintosh alone, to repeat, could be a witness for the defence and for the prosecution of both Art Nouveau and anti-Art Nouveau. Olbrich in 1901^^ defended Art Nouveau against England: 'It is only if one can feel both democratically and autocratically, that one can evaluate the imaginative craftsman who wants to express in decorative art responsibility, this time in the art

more than mere are

One may then even approach the now ventures to touch: which forces

utility.

question which no one

valuable for a nation, those which evolve rationally,

good forms ... or those which abundant plenitude of their inventiveness hundreds of new shapes and visions, each carrying the germs of new possibilities The limit to which one may advance in expressiveness without getting aesthetically objectionable becomes confused must lie at different levels for diflferent natures and must affect different natures differently Just as it is not given to the Englishman to utter the wealth of emotion expressed by the German soul in the untold variety of its music, the EngHsh spirit cannot ornamentally and constructively express itself with consciously and intellectually

create in the

force, violence, agitation, fantasy.' earlier,

But

others, several years

already praised England for these very Hmitations. This

what Edmond de Goncourt meant in 1896 when he called the style Yachting Style. This is why, in the same year. Pan, the lavish only just estabHshed journal for modern art and decoration in Germany, brought out an article on English Art in the House, and this is what made Adolf Loos say that 'the centre of European civilization is at present in London'^^ and what made the Prussian Board of Trade send Hermann is

new

Muthesius to England to stay there for several years and study English architecture and design.

144

%^:

^ 143

)oors by Mackintosh tor

tlic

Wilii)\\

his favourite pastel colours set in lead

and

creates an abstract pattern of nervous yet

Rooms,

1904. Usiiii^ glass ot

panels

on white wood, he

steel

muted excitement

144 Central span of the Garabit railway viaduct by Gustave Eiffel: an arch-bridge of iron, 400 ft above the river. Eiffel had already used the same system in 1877 in his design for the Maria Pia Bridge in Portugal

CHAPTER KJUR

Art and Industry

Vienna was

first

on the Continent

in returning to the straight

path of the straight hne and the square and rectangle, and, being Vienna, succeeded in preserving the elegance and the sense of precious materials of Art Nouveau. In

Germany

the change

names of Riemerschmid and Peter Behrens, and while the change in Austria was an aesthetic one entirely, in Germany it was also social. Riemerschmid and principally connected with the

his brother-in-law,

Karl Schmidt, the founder of the Deutsche

1899 began to tackle the problem of cheap furniture and in 1905 at an exhibition showed their first machine-made furniture, designed, they said, 'from the spirit of the machine'. Behrens, who had belonged to the colony of artists at Darmstadt, abandoned the curve about 1904 and turned to cubic shapes and square decoration, as they had done in Vienna, but with greater severity. A few years later he was given the opportunity by the A. E.G., the German electricity combine, of concentrating for a time entirely on factory architecture and industrial design. But already in 1898 he had designed glass for quantity production. In France the revolt against Art Nouveau took yet another form. It centred on the conquest of the new materials by new Werkst'dtten, as early as

architects.

The triumphs of iron

170

///.

176

///.

1^4

architecture at the exhibition

been the triumphs of engineers, even if the Eiffel Tower by its very height and position became at once one of the chief constituents of the architectural scene of Paris. Being a monument and not a work of utility such as the grandest of the exhibition halls and bridges - Eitfel's own Ciarabit Viaduct of 1880-8 with a span of 543 feet, the two Roeblings' Brooklyn Bridge of 1867-83 with a span of 1,59s feet. Fowler

of 1889 had

///.

still

147

and Baker's Firth of Forth Bridge of

88 1-7 with a span of an arch bridge, the second a suspension bridge, cantilever bridge - the Eiffel Tower had more chance

1,710 feet, the the third a

to be looked at by layman and architect alike as a piece of design with aesthetic connotations, that is, as architecture. Indeed Muthesius, the Prussian architect whose studies in England have been mentioned, listed in a book of 1 902, called characteristically Stilarchitektur utid Baukunst, the Crystal Palace, the Bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve, the Halle des Machines and the Eiffel Tower as examples of the right kind of architecture for the twentieth century. In 191 3 he added to his list train-sheds and grain elevators.

///.

146

III.

145

first

^"^

(left) Eiffel's tower for the Paris Exhibition of 889, a virtuoso display 1 45-6 of ironwork 984 ft high; (below) the Firth ot" Forth Bridge by Fowler and Baker, 188 1-7, the most splendid of" all cantilever bridges 1

Train-sheds were of iron and glass, but grain elevators were of concrete. France had led the world in the aesthetic appreciation of iron - the part played by Labrouste and Viollet-le-Duc has been discussed - she was now going to lead in that of concrete. The first concrete fanatic of many was Fran(;"ois Coignet. He wrote at the time of the exhibition of 1855 that 'cement, concrete and iron' would replace stone, and the year after took a patent for iron members embedded in concrete -

not the tirants,

first

such patent incidentally - in which they are called

showing

that the tensile strength

appreciated. In the seventies Joseph

of mass concrete was

Monier worked on

posts

and beams of reinforced concrete, and Americans and Germans made the necessary analyses and calculations on the performance of the two materials in conjunction. Finally, in the nineties Fran(;;ois Hennebique built factories of concrete with steel reinforcements on the utilitarian grid principle. ///.

Ills.

149

147, 148

The

factory

illustrated here is of 1895. ^^ 1894 already Anatole de Baudot, a pupil first of Labrouste, then of Viollet-le-Duc, and their true follower in the sense that he followed their principles rather than their forms, decided to use concrete for his church of St-Jean de Montmartre and not to conceal it. There are pointed as well as round arches and rib vaults. The internal character is Gothic, the exterior only vestigially medieval.

147-8 Anatole dc Baudot, in St-Jcan de Montmartre (i 894-1902, left and ri^^ht),

was the

first

to use reinforced

concrete systematically in trial

building.

non-indus-

combined with The interior has

brick in the facade. rib-vaults and other reminiscences of the Gothic past

'WfK^r

While Baudot's church was

still

incomplete,

1902 Auguste

younger, designed the celebrated house in many titles to fame. It is the first private house to use concrete framing. It demonstrates this fact proudly even if the concrete posts and beams are still clad in terracotta, it distinguishes with care between the appearance o{ supporting members and infdling panels - the latter are in lively Art Nouveau leaf patterns of faience - it opens the facade in a U-shape to avoid a backyard, and it faces its staircase entirely Ferret, thirty years

Ills.

130, 132

the rue Franklin.

has

149 One of the first buildings to use reinforced concrete

throughout, allowing vast

windows:

Fran(;ois

Hcnnebique's spinning mill

Tourcoing, of 1895

mmi^^

iic iirst

of flats

aoincsiK

use-

(n J concrete >kLitU>ii.

Auj^u^u Perrel

in Pans, isbis rue Franklin (1902). Pcrrct devised a

to allow as

much window

block

U-shaped plan

surface as possible

153

///.

131

with glass hexagons, proclaiming in this its indebtedness to Guimard's Castel Berangcr. In 1905 in his garage in the rue de Ponthieu Pcrret exposed his concrete skeletons naked; in 191 in the Theatre des Chanips-Elysees he introduced the concrete skeleton into public architecture. To the end, however, he refused to test concrete for its possibilities of wide cantilevers and curved surfaces in tension. This was left to others, one French by nation, the other at least by race and name.

The Theatre des Champs-Elysees in Paris ( 1 9 1 1 ) by Perret is one of the monumental buildings constructed entirely with a reinforced concrete frame. In this drawing the frame is shown the stage is at the right, 1

earliest

and the gallery

154

tiers

appear in section

152 In Ferret's rue Franklin flats the angular luitiine and projecting bays by the concrete frame, but this is hidden behind terracotta

are determined

and Art Nouveau

tiles

53 Tony Garnier's plan for a vast Industrial City, developed in 899-1 904 though not finished until 191 7, was revolutionary in its scope and its use of reinforced concrete throughout. It was planned around the needs of I

factones and communications - foreground, the railway yards and docks distance) the dam (in A workers. with simple, convenient housing tor the

would provide power.

*|i

HUf

M. 154 Houses in Garnier's Cite Industrielle: simple cubic shapes of concrete, surrounded by public gardens

Tony ///.

Garnier was a few years older than Perret.

Rome

He won

the

but used most of his time there to develop the plan and the architecture of an ideal industrial town. The result was sent to the academy in 1901, but at first refused. It was exhibited in 1904 and pubhshed - not without revisions Prix de

in 1899,

91 7. Meanwhile, in 1905

Edouard Herriot,

a socialist like

mayor of Lyons, had begun to make use of Garnier for municipal building. This gave him the opportunity to realize some of his ideas. What makes the Cite

Garnier, and at the time

Industrielle a

his

milestone in the history of the early twentieth

first time a young architect took as theme the needs of a town of today; 'for industrial require-

century

that here for the

ments', he stated in the introduction, 'will be responsible for the foundation of most new towns in the future'. The plan is developed on a possible site, somewhere, Garnier says, in the south-east of France, his own homeland. The town is to have

158

M r

.::;:::^^iis^vLi^-m ^^f ^^k^f]; i 155 Railway station of the Cite Industrielle, with large windows, a bold concrete tower and even bolder cantilevered roofs. This, however, was designed shortly before 191 7, not in 1904^8

thirty-five

thousand inhabitants. The plan refuses to have any-

thing to do with academic tenets of axiality but aims to

work

who would live and work in the town. Planners sixty years later may raise their objections; the plan yet the interests of those

remains pioneer work. The houses have no backyards. Each house has at least one bedroom window to the south. The builtover area does not exceed half the plot. The rest is public greenspaces.

There

are plenty

///.

^54

III.

135

of pedestrian passages. The materials

used are cement for foundations, reinforced concrete for beams

and ceilmgs.

'All the

major buildings are constructed almost

exclusively in reinforced concrete.' This one sees at once; the cantilevered roofs of the Municipal Offices and station

would

be impossible otherwise and go far beyond what had at the time been executed. The cubic shapes of the small houses were as

not banished but remains 'completely independent of the construction'. Garnier never had an

revolutionary. Decoration

159

opportunity to realize anything as bold and sweeping as the Cite ludustrieUc, but in the Public Slaughterhouse at Lyons, built in 1906-13, he did demonstrate dignity in industrial architecture, and he was one of the very few anywhere in the ///.

1^6

world to do so. We shall return presently to success in this field Germany. But first the story of reinforced concrete must be rounded off by reference to the discovery of the new combined material's structural and aesthetic advantages in the field of arcuated as well as trabeated architecture. Here the first in the field was once more an engineer: Robert Maillart, a Swiss, but a pupil of Hennebique. He first suggested and carried out improvements on the current system of warehouse or factory construction with posts and beams of concrete by making one the formerly supporting and supported parts. The mushroom principle he evolved was discovered at the same time in America. Soon after, he turned to bridges and again succeeded in making the arch and the roadway one. In France at the same in

///.

1^8

moment, ///.

i^j

to be precise in

1910,

Simon Boussiron, another

engineer, built the roof of the railway station of Bercy near

157 (fop)

Goods

(1910): the roof

allowed

by Simon Boussjron of concrete, top-glazed, and concrete has

stations at Bercy, outside Fans,

of thin

shells

daring cantilever

the side

158 (above) Reinforced concrete appeared in bridge-building with Robert Maillart's bridge over the Rhine at Tavanesa (Switzerland) of lyio. Arch and roadway are a single unit, aesthetically as well as structurally. The influence of Maillart began to be

felt

only

after the

Second World

War

156 (left) The closest Gamier came to building his industrial Clity: part ot the vast slaughterhouse of La Mouche, Lyons, 1909-13. It includes a cattle maricet. The buildings are of concrete, but the vault o\ the market hall (span about 265

ft) is

of steel and

glass

161

Max

Berg's Centenary Hall, Breslau, of 191 3, fully exploited the of concrete. It covers an area of 21,000 square feet with an economy and grandeur hardly equalled until Nervi. Right, a detail of the

159-60

possibilities

reinforced concrete ribs

Paris

of very thin concrete vaults of the hyperbolic parabaloid

shape the future of which was to be so spectacular. ^^ But the

of arches combining the long sweep of steel with the solidity of stone in architecture, acknowledged by the public as such, were first recognized to the full by Max Berg in his Centenary Hall of 191 3 at Breslau. Max Berg is not as well known as he deserves to be. This is largely due to the fact that already before 1925 he abandoned architecture to devote himself to a Christian mysticism. And who can say whether Lothar Schreyer of both Sturm and Bauhaus who tells us about this is so wrong in seeing even in the Centenary Hall 'the Cosmos opened to reveal the courses of the stars and the Empyraeum'.^^ The famous names in the Germany and Austria of Ferret's, Garnier's and Maillart's generation are Josef Hoffmann and Adolf Loos in Austria, Peter Behrens in Germany. To them aesthetic possibilities

Ills.

i3g, 160

162

v^l

must be added Otto Wagner, professor at the academy of art in Vienna, who was only seven years younger than Morris, hi his inaugural lecture, in 1894, he reiterated Viollet-lc-l)uc's faith modern age, the need to find forms to express it, and the

in the

conviction that 'nothing that

not practical can be beautiful'. ^^

His buildings of those years were

///.

161

less radical. His stations of the Stadtbahn of 1 894-1901 are in a kind of Baroque Art Nouveau, emphatically less stimulating than Guimard's Metro which they preceeded, and his office buildings and flats are simple, but in their fenestration not untraditional. The favourite facing with faience reminds one of Perret. Only one of all Wagner's works has the prophetic character which we found for the first time in

161

Otto Wagner's early stations for the Vienna Stadtbahn display little modern forms or the new mode of transport they served

interest in either

i62 WhileWagner believed that modern materials, only in 1905, Postal Savings

arcliitccturc should rcHcct iiu)dcni in the glass

Bank, did he achieve

and

steel hall

iii^

of the Vienna

his ideal

Garnier's Cite Industrielle: the interior of the Postal Savings

Bank of

1905, with

its

tapering metal supports and

its

curved

glass roof.

///.

of prophetic character here, one is perhaps iioi quite right. The buildings of the Cite Itidustrielle and the Postal Savings Bank are not prophetic of the twentieth century they belong to it, that is, they contributed to its creation, out of the new materials and their authentically integrated use, out of the anti-historicism of Art Nouveau and cnit of William Mi^rris's In speaking

faith in serving people's needs.

The

buildings designed in the

same years by Josef Hoffmann and Adolf Loos must be looked ir)S

162

163-5 In 1905 Josef Hoffmann was commissioned to design (above) for

Stoclet in Brussels.

The result proved

that the

a palatial

new

house with

style,

bare straight lines, was as suitable for gracious living as for commerce. Right, the dining-room, with marble veneers and mosaics by Klimt (see

its

III.

Ills.

i6j-$

///.

166)

;

below

right,

the hall, rising through

two

storeys

at in the same way. Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet in Brussels demonstrated once and for all that the new style with its reliance on unmitigated right angles was as suitable for luxury as for pure function, for leisure as for work. The secret, if you are bent on banishing ornament, mouldings, curves altogether, is fme materials and the play of proportions. The latter determines the varied and lively exterior of the Palais Stoclet, the former the interior with its marble facings and its large mosaics by Klimt. The mosaic is flat decoration, Klimt's scrolly

166

•

-^I

W ^^Ki^^^^^tfl^l

L_ji

J\>J

9 n^^

i67 In revolt against what he considered the prettiness of fashionable Viennese architecture, Adolf Loos banished every suggestion of ornament and almost of charm. His Steiner House, Vienna, (1910) shows him at his

most uncompromising

and figures are exquisitely flattened, and their perfect suitability to Hoffmann's ensemble shows once more the part Art Nouveau could play in the creation of the twentiethtrees

century

///.

166

///.

167

style.

Adolf Loos hated Hoffmann and the Wiener Werkstatte of which Hoffmann was one of the founders and which succeeded in combining the new, post-Art Nouveau style with an inimitably Viennese daintiness and prettiness. For the

initial

patron of the Werkstatte, the man who had put the necessary money atxhe disposal of the founder, Mackintosh had designed

music room. Loos was the purist of the emerging movement. atid Critnc is the title of his most often quoted essay. This was published in 1908. The purest of his purist houses and therefore the most often illustrated is the Steiner House m Vienna of 1910. Here for the first time the layman would find It hard to decide whether this mii;ht not be of 1930. a

Ortmmctit

166

Kiss, by Ciustav Klimt, water-coKnir and gouache design dining-room of Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet (///. 164)

'['he

for the

tor a

mosaic

The

greatest contribution of

Germany during

these years

was the foundation of the Deutscher Werkbund in 1907, the society in which architects, craftsmen and manufacturers met and in which the new conception of industrial design was evolved, a conception whose origin in England - in spite of all the conflicts between Morris's faith in craft and the new equally enthusiastic faith in the machine - is made patent by the fact that the term design had in the end to be taken over by Germany because of the absence of a German word with the same meaning. An appreciation of the machine and its possibilities was not in itself new, and a kind of aesthetic worship of the machine can be found here and there in all countries and in all decades of the nineteenth century. As early as 1835 in a parliamentary enquiry in England into the relation between qualities 170

of design and Britain's exports the neo-classical architect T. L. Donaldson had said that he knew no 'example of a perfect machine which is not at the same time beautiful'. ^'^ Redgrave, one of Henry Cole's circle, in his report on design at the 1S51 exhibition, had similarly written that in objects 'where use is so paramount that ornament is repudiated ... a noble simplicity is the result'. ^3 And so it goes on to Oscar Wilde, the aesthete: 'All machinery may be beautiful Do not seek to decorate it.'^^ But it was still a far step from Wilde's purely aesthetic reaction and the Cole circle's recognition of the problem on paper, to its fmal facing and solving by the Werkbund. The Werkbund published year-books in the years 191 2-1 5, and they contain the record of what was achieved. Illustrated are a tea-set by Riemerschmid for the Deutsche Werkstatten, Hnoleum by Riemerschmid for the Delmenhorst Linoleum factory, and electric kettles and fans by Behrens for the A.E.Ci. .

168-9 Designs by Richard Riemerschmid tor mass production: (left) linoleum for the Delmenhorst tactory, 191 2, and (hclow) a tea-set for the Deutsche Werkstatten

///.

169

III.

Ills.

17J-3

I70-6

Germany

world

in design for in-

led the

dustry with the work of such men as Riemerschmid and Behrens. Left, a chair of 1899 and glass of 1912 by right, Riemerschmid;

glass

designed

bottles

by Behrens

electric kettles

898, and and fans

for the A. E.G., 1912

J\]

J'\ i ")

177-^ Peter Bchrcns was both architect and chief designer for A.E.CJ. He was responsible for everything from their catalogues (below) to their factory buildings in Berlin (ri^iht) of 1907

ALLGEMEINE ELEKTRICITAiTS-

GESELLSCHAET

BOGENIAMPENFABRIK 74

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The case of Behrens is the most significant in Europe at that moment. The Allgemeine Elektrizitatsgellschaft or A.E.Ci. up the new Werkbund and made Behrens the architect of their buildings, factories as well as shops, the designer of their products and even their stationery. Behrens was the first ot the line that leads to the present-day American stylists or Ciio Ponti and Arne Jacobsen. But his buildings seen purely as architecture are as important. What Garnicr was doing at Lyons, Behrens under

its

director Paul Jordan took

principles in earnest

175

llh. ijj,

ij^

179 The FagLis tactory at Alfeld on the Leinc, designed m ly lo by iichrcn^" young pupil Walter Gropius, summed up all that had been achieved in pre-war industrial architecture. Slim brick posts, and all the rest glass; no posts at the corners at

all

did in Berlin, and his expression of the nobility of work

even

purer, and more detached from motifs of the past, than Garnier's.

The fmal synthesis of all architecture to that time ///.

///.

that

had been developed

in industrial

the Fagus factory for shoe-trees at

on the Leine, w^hich was designed by the much younger Walter Gropius, pupil of Behrens, in collaboration with Adolf Meyer, in 1910, the very year of Loos's Steiner House. The two buildings have this in common a ruthlessly cubic shape and the total absence of ornament. But Gropius dealt with a novel job. Loos with an old one, and Gropius courageously picked up the threads of the existing, utilitarian, essentially anonymous architecture of glass set in a structural frame, such as they were to illustrate it in the Werkbund year-book of 191 3. And he imbued it with the nobility he had seen in Behrens' factories and a social awareness ultimately derived from the Morris Alfeld

Movement. 176

The illustrations just referred to accompanied an article by Gropius on the development of modern industrial architecture in one of the Werkbund year-books. Other articles were by Riemerschmid, by Behrens and also by Muthesius, who more than any other was responsible for leading the Werkbund in the twentieth-century direction. He had to fight his case against the opposition of van de Velde, who pleaded for individual expression where Muthesius wanted to develop standards.

iiiaajtia

CHAPTER IlVt

Towards the

International Style

Muthesius in the famous discussion at Cologne in 191 4 said: 'Architecture and with it the whole area of activity of the Werkbund moves towards standardization (Typisierwiii) once again introduce a universally Only standardization can valid, self-certain taste.' Van de Velde answered: 'As long as there are artists in the Werkbund they are going to protest against any suggestion of a canon of standardization. The artist, according to his innermost essence, is a fervent nidividualist, a free, spontaneous creator. He will never voluntarily submit to a discipline forcing on him a type, a canon.' It must have been a memorable moment - Art Nouveau at its best resisting the needs and declining the responsibilities of the new century. In fact the victory of Muthesius was assured even before the Cologne meeting. The meeting was held apropos the first Werkbund exhibition, and this exhibition, at least in its most important buildings, actually demonstrated that victory, and would have demonstrated it internationally if the outbreak of the First World War had not disrupted European unity and held up cultural progress. Among the buildings, Behrens's Festival Hall was disappointingly classical, Hoffmann's Austrian pavilion equally classical outside, but inside had a playfulness which was .

backward-pointing, as was van de Velde's impressive theatre with its emphatic curves. The two most powerful buildings were the Glass House by Bruno Taut and Gropius's Hiillc dcs Machines and attached offices o{ a fictitious fictory. Taut's prismatic dome was the most original shape in the exhibition, a prophecy of geodesic domes to come. The glass wall below is in the line of descent of Guimard and Perret. Gropius at this moment was clearly influenced, not only by Behrens but even more by Frank Lloyd Wright whose work had been made as

So Staircase in it

19 1 4. entirely

Bruno Taut's

Glass

of glass bricks

{ci".

House III.

101)

the C^ologne

and iron

Werkbund

Exhibition

Ills.

///.

iSo, iSi

iSi

iHi

Carson Firic Scott Chicago, by Sullivan (1899- 904). Note the

(rij^ht)

store,

dominant

frame, clad

white terracotta and ending

steel

removed) eaves gallery; the 'Chicago windows' (fixed centre and movable sides); and the lush ornament framing the

a (since

display

windows

(see

III.

25)

181 f/e/?^ Glass House by Bruno Taut (1914), with a prismatic dome foreshadowing Buckminster Fuller

known

///.

1S2

Europe first by two publications issued in Berlin in 1910 and 191 1 and then by lectures of Berlage's who had himself visited Chicago in 191 1. The Chicago to which he made his pilgrimage was, however, no longer that of Sullivan, though Sullivan was still alive. After the completion of the Carson Pirie Scott store in 1904, he received no further commissions of importance and died lonely and disappointed in 1922. When at the great Chicago Exhibition of 1893 the classicism of Beaux- Arts derivation had triumphed, he had prophesied that this would put back architecture in America by fifty years. He was nearly right. The so-called School of Chicago fizzled out during the last years before the First World War, and though something equally influential took its place, it was not of the calibre of the work of the School of Chicago. What had been work in new materials and for new purposes was replaced by work - admittedly aesthetically brilliant - in the limited field of the private house. Yet Frank Lloyd Wright's is not entirely an aesthetic achievement. What it consisted of is easily said: a new vision of the 180

§i§i saas oggS '" PI

nnnnnga™

"^SOH

p,p„

ISCOTT^

i i..^^#!dr

\C*.iAJ^

Vf^

183-4 Frank Lloyd Wright was in the office of Louis SulHvan when he produced the Charnley House, Chicago (i 891-2, helow left), with SuUivancsque ornament on the balcony. It is still a closed design, but its low projecting roof and general severity hint at his later buildings such as the Martin House, Buffalo (above) of 1906, with its complex interpenetration of indoor and outdoor space

house embedded in its natural surroundings and opening towards them by means of terraces and cantilevered roofs, and a new vision of the interior of the house as freely intercommunicating spaces. There was practical precedent for both

///.

1S4

///.

iS^

American domestic building before him as an aesthetic experience they belong to him entirely and by their influence from 191 o onwards they established new ideals for Europe as well. The operative dates are these: the Charnley House of 1 89 1, severely cubic but closed; the Winslow House

///.

iSj

///.

u^^

these things in

;

of 1893 with far oversailing eaves but still closed; the Studio, Oak Park of 1895, the first with a complex interlocked plan, and so to the watershed of 1900-1 when the type was hurly established and to the maturity of the Martin House at Buffalo of 1906 and the Coonley and the Robie Houses oi' 1907-9. I

85 Plan of the Martin House, Buffalo, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1906). 1

The rooms

interlock

in a spreading pattern

among

plantings.

There are scarcely any internal doors; instead Wright uses changes of level, columns, and open arches.

The

servants'

quarters, top

left,

i^-k^

are equally open.

The view is

from the

///.

184

far right

of this plan

n r

F F

184

H..

CARRIAGE PORCH

CONSERVATORY

LIVIhXS-ROOMS DINING ROOM RECEPTION HALL OFFICE KITCHEN SERVIS DINING-ROOM

STABLE

PADOOCK

VEST:ei)LE

POPCH

'^^"""^

BICYCLES

LAVATORY PERGOLA

SvW^' ^v^^ f^*\^\\s^

-\.

1 86-7 Armchairs by Gcrrit Rietveld: (left) a restrained cubic shape of pine and leather,

designed in 1908 when he was only twenty; (below) an allwood design of 191 7 - the first piece of furniture embodying the principles of De Stijl - where comfort has yielded to geometry

88 Design for terraced housing on the esplanade at Schevcningen, by

J.J. P.

Oud, 1917

As has already been said, 1910 saw the first publication of Wright's work in Europe, 1914 Gropius's Wright-inspired office range of the exhibition factory at Cologne, 191 5 Rob van't Hoff building a complete Wright house in Holland. But Holland very soon abandoned Wright's message and developed Wright's forms in a new spirit. It was the spirit of Cubism. His forms were sufficiently cubic to allow for such a change of meaning.

Stijl,

the carrier of this transformation,

was

achievements and repercussions arc

started in

191 7, and

outside the

bounds of this book. Its most significant architectural is Oud's design for seaside housing

its

expression at the beginning

///.

iSS

III.

simple in the block shapes of the at Scheveningen, elements as Garnier's in his industrial city. Then almost immediately unfunctional complications were introduced to still

indicate aesthetically the interaction

oi'

planes. Interaction

conception behind Rictvcld's famous chair of 191 7. It is more ingenious and was more stimulating than his own earlier work, but a chair he did nine planes

also the basic aesthetic

twenty, has a Sachlichkeit which acquaintance with Cubism could only disturb. years earlier,

when he was only

187

Germany

in the first years

of the Werkbund was indeed not

alone in seeking siniphcity and functional form for objects of

Ills.

i8g, igi

///.

igo

everyday use. The Dutch contribution began in the first decade of the twentieth century. The Danish contribution began too, and Denmark was to gather strength until some forty years later it had become one of the most important countries in the world in the field of the crafts and industrial design. The furniture and metalwork of Johan Rohde, a painter at first, acquainted with and appreciative of Gauguin, Van Gogh, Toulouse-Lautrec, the Nabis, Toorop, is of great beauty as well as functional soundness. Rohde was led in the direction of design by the Pont-Aven attitude, but reaUzed early that the introduction of figures heavy with symbolic significance was not an answer to the problem of design. His answer is nearer Voysey's, and the cupboard illustrated is as independent of past styles as Voysey at his rare best. Rohde's metalwork was largely designed for Georg Jensen, the silversmith, and his workshop, and Jensen's own cutlery of the same years shows the identity of approach of the two men. 189 (left) Mahogany cupboard designed by Johan Rohde in 1897 for his own use, and made by the brothers H. P. and L. Larsen

90-1

(rij^ht)

Danish

silverware: teapot and sugar

bowl designed by Johan Rohde and made by Georg Jensen (about 1906), and cutlery designed and made in 1908 by Georg Jensen

f¥» IS9

Of the major nations of Europe only Italy has so far not been mentioned in these pages. Her role during the years here under consideration and up to 1909 had indeed been secondary, in architecture as well as painting and sculpture. Medardo Rosso, it may be argued, mattered internationally, and Sommaruga, D'Aronco, Cattaneo made their Florealc in their own way out of elements of the Vienna Secession and the naturalism of French Art Nouveau. But their message was not essentially different from the message of those who had inspired them. The years 1909-14 changed all that. Futurism is one of the constituent movements of the revolution which established the 192 Sant'Elia died too

young

have any chance of realizing such

ideas as this, with multi-level traffic (cars below, pedestrian

buildings above), developed sketchily in 191 3-14

iii)m;[:

^gjnn 1 j.i^d.

IP luj ijÂťrLrrfpi

brilliant Futurist

ways linking

terraced

I L L I

193 Sant'Elia's

projected skyscraper

with recessed storeys,

about 1919.

There is no ornament

twentieth century, in aesthetic thought, in painting and architecture.

Without Marinetti, Boccioni, Sant'EHa

the early

twentieth century cannot be described. In architecture,

alas,

the

outbreak of the war and the premature death of Sant'EHa in 1916, prevented anything being actually built. As in the case of Garnier's Cite Industricllc we must go to drawings, to visions

Ills.

ig2, /9?

of the future. tion to

And Sant'Elia's is indeed like Garnier's, a contribuat least as much as to architecture. In

town planning

was the descendant of Vienna and the Florcale, though other drawings prove that he was aware of the new rectangularity as well, and of specific Parisian work. Henri Sauvage in 1912-13 in a block of flats, 26 rue Vavin, had conceived the idea of increasing the light in city streets by stepped-back upper stories. Sant'Elia took up the idea (or recreated it?), and later it became part of the zoning law of New York and an internationally accepted principle. It is an urban, indeed metropolitan, principle, and in this lies its importance, as the importance of Futurism to architecture lies in its adherents' architecture he

///.

ig4

passionate

The

commitment

to the city.

was the most urgent and the most comprehensive problem of the nineteenth century. It had been criminally neglected by the architects, and by governments as well. To cut boulevards through Paris had its traffic advantages and offered plenty of spectacular /?om^5 de vue for the placing of monumental buildings, to open up the glacis of the fortress walls of Vienna, to create a generous ring of gardens and ideal sites for yet larger public buildings was no solution. These urban displays had their aesthetic points - and who does not get a visual thrill out of looking up the Avenue de I'Opera or the Rue Royale? - but the real problem was the visually unpromising one of housing a population which in London (the area which in 1888 became the County of London), grew between 1801 and 1901 from under a million to nearly four and a half million, and in Manchester from about one hundred thousand to about five hundred and fifty thousand. Equally unpromising visually and equally urgent was the problem of the siting of industry. If architects did not care, manufacturers cared only rarely. But Robert Owen, the socialist manufacturer, designed in 181 7 a model village with factory and housing, as Ledoux had done twenty years before, and about 1850 the first manufacturers built more modest versions of such schemes, the largest and most convincing being Sir Titus Salt's Saltaire near Leeds which city

194 Henri Sauvagc's

flats at

26 rue Vavin, Paris (1912-13); recessed upper storeys and white tile facing give more light to the street

to about 1870. The huge mill dominates the of the workers' houses which are laid out unimaginatively, if acceptably from the purely hygenic point of view. Then came Morris and Norman Shaw, Morris with his fervent sermons of happy labour and social duties, Norman Shaw with his pretty houses of moderate size. And so Bedford Park (see p. 32) was built just outside London in 1875 as the first garden suburb. It was for a middle-class with aesthetic leanings, not for the working-class, but its message could be adapted easily. Make your houses friendly, vary their appearance, leave trees on the

dates

from 1850

streets ///.

195 Saltaire near Leeds, planned in 1850, was the first large industrial estate in the world: 820 houses were built in a grid dominated by the mill, the school and the institute, left, and the church, above the mill. The sanitary improvement was great, with service lanes between the rows of houses and a park across the river, but visually Saltaire contributed

housing

nothing. (The garden-city housing, top

left, is later)

^-7^' ':ÂŁ.

-^" ^

196 Port Sunlight was begun by the firm of Lever's in 1888 on the

human and airy garden suburb pattern: semi-detached houses of brick scattered among trees so that the town itself is in a park

are

They were all lessons learned at once, and already in 1888 Port Sunlight was begun outside Liverpool for the employees

site.

of Lever's, and

1895,

Bournville for the employees of

was part of the general scheme. This principle was extended and systematized in Ebenezer Howard's Tomorrow which came out in 1898, and again as Garden Cities of Tomorrow in 1899. Now the phrase was coined. Let us leave the old cities, vast, dirty, crammed, noisy, and build new ones, to a manageable size and a human scale, with their own factories and offices, gardens and spacious Cadbury's. In these

cases, as at Saltaire, the factory

parks. 19.S

///.

ig6

>??e.\*N

-!'>

mnm

-.^1

197 At Letch worth Garden City, begun in 1904, Parker and Unwin attempted to do on a large scale what Shaw's Bedford Park had done for an elite: the houses are picturesque variants on the Enghsh cottage style popularized by Voysey and Baillie Scott, mixing, brick, tile and roughcast, in all sizes from single dwellings to small rows

But Howard's was ///.

///.

igj

igS

diagram, the

first

real

garden

city,

Parker and Unwin's Letchworth, about thirty-five miles north

of London, was started in 1904, but yet in 193 1 had no more than fifteen thousand inhabitants; and the Hampstead Garden Suburb, started in 1907 and also by Parker and Unwin, was a garden suburb, not a garden city, as was a design by Riemerschmid of 1907 and the Krupps' Margarethenhohe outside Essen of 191 2. The message was unmistakable. The garden city, or what we now call the satellite town, the Trabantenstadt, is possible,

it is

a help even,

but

it is

not the

final solution.

The

big

come to stay, and we must come to terms with it. what Tony Garnier was the first to see. The Cite Industrielle

city has

196

That

milestone as

much

Howard's Garden

Cities because, as

town on a and because its designer is clearly as interested in its industrial and commercial districts as in its public buildings and houses. Howard's was a social reformer's contribution; has already been observed,

it is

the fiction of a real

real site,

Garnier's the potential architect-planner's employed by a government department or a city council; the Futurists' contribution was deHrious enthusiasm for exactly that which Howard was running away from. Here is Marinetti and the Futurist Manifesto of 1909: 'We declare that the splendour of the world has been enriched by a new beauty - the beauty of speed ... A roaring, racing car, rattling past like a machine gun, is more beautiful than the Winged Victory of Samothrace We will sing of the stirring of great crowds - workers, pleasure-seekers, rioters We will sing the midnight fervour of shipyards blazing with electric moons and so on to stations and the smoke of trains, to .

198 The garden suburb became popular throughout Europe, and was the pattern chosen by Richard Riemerschmid; below, his design for houses for textile workers at Hagen, WestphaHa, of 1907, in entire accord with the principles preached

by Raymond Unwin

factories, to bridges, to steamers

here

and

finally to aeroplanes.

Sant'Elia's Messa(i^io published in the catalogue

And

his

Nuova and remodelled by Marinetti to be the Manifesto of Futurist Architecture: 'We must invent and build ex novo our modern city like an immense and tumultuous

exhibition Citta

shipyard, active, mobile and everywhere dynamic, and the

modern up the

building like

gigantic machine

fac^ades like serpents

Lifts

must swarm

and iron. The house of ornament brutish in its must rise from the brink o( a gathering up the traffic of the

glass

concrete, iron and glass, without

mechanical simplicity tumultous abyss, the street metropolis connected for necessary transfers to metal cat-walks and high-speed conveyor belts.' Perhaps, in spite of Behrens and Gropius, the new style needed someone to grow lyrical over it to win the day. The Futurists provided that. The Expressionists took it on after the .

war and dreamed up and

their first steel

and

all-glass skyscrapers,

only in the middle of the century, the synthesis o^ the garden city and the metropolitan city was achieved, with garden cities culminating in urban centres, garden estates for ten thousand, with skyscrapers carefully placed, and office buildings in various groupings enclosing patio gardens. finally,

With life as

this,

architecture has

made

great as architecture ever did.

contribution to Is

human

the contribution o{

painting and sculpture on the same level, and are the so-called

of painting and sculpture and the so-called applied arts of architecture and design working towards the same aims, meeting with the same kind and intensity of response? So it had been in the Middle Ages, so in the Baroque. But that mutual sympathy, that common understanding had not always been a matter of course. The Town Hall of Amsterdam and the Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis which Rembrandt painted for it, do not belong together. Those who praised the one would not necessarily praise the other, and if some did they would do it for opposite reasons. Holland in the seventeenth century was a middle-class republic. It was here that the figure of the misfine arts

198

understood, the neglected, the starving

Moreover, Holland was the visual arts

artist first

appeared.

country and not in need of for worship. The second age of the art that a Protestant

mattered being unwelcome was the

first

middle-class age, the

nineteenth century, or rather the nineteenth and the later eighteenth century which belongs to

it. Neglect grew into on the other hand in Goya, in Blake, in Runge went into a secret language. If you want to understand the artist, you must entrust yourself to him and work at it; he is no longer going to work for you. Patronage in the old sense was dead; what patronage there was to be was as individual, as exposed as the artist's gospel itself. Isolation, half imposed and half self-imposed, was the fate of the painters of Barbizon, o{

active opposition; art

Courbet, of the Impressionists, of the Post-Impressionists. If anything, the pitch of hostility rose. The social development of architecture was bound to be different. There never can be an architect as isolated as a painter. But while this relative security was a gratifying fact for the architect, it was not beneficial for architecture. It meant quite simply that in the nineteenth century the most ruthlessly creative minds did not choose the profession of the architect. This explains to a certain extent the phenomenon of the collapse of aesthetic values in so much of the century. It also explains why it is that the most forward-pointing work so often

came from

outsiders.

The

reason

why

came from

is that the century was one of materialism and hence of science and technology. No century ever before had seen comparable progress in these fields. The progress was made at the expense of aesthetic sensibihty of the subtle kind that would have granted acceptance to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. The Crystal Palace met with success, but so also did the horrors of decorative art displayed in it. Architects' architecture and salon or academy art went together, engineers' and explorers' architecture and explorers' art did not. But this statement is perhaps too abrupt. The roads followed by the best painters, the best craftsmen or manufacturers and the best architects did occasionally meet. The earliest was the

engineers

199

most fruitful meeting; it is that between Morris's preaching and the conversion to craft and design of young painters and young architects. Otherwise meetings were mostly much less significant. One might perhapsjust say that the turn to intimacy, the turn away from bombast was of a similar nature in the English Domestic Revival and in Impressionism in painting of the same years. One can perhaps also say that the elegance of fac^ade detail which replaced the grossness and bluster of the High Victorian architects corresponds to the elegance of Impressionist painting as against Courbet's.

take us very It is

were

///.

Ills.

136,

16 J, 178 Ills.

Ills.

68-g

48, 108

But

that does not

far.

different

with Art Nouveau. Here indeed certain painters

accord with the craftsmen-designers. If Art Nouveau is characterized by radical innovation, and by the incantation of the curve, then Gauguin certainly belongs to it as one of the illustrations to this survey has already demonstrated in

full

- and so do the northerners Munch and Toorop and Hodler, and to a more limited degree Maurice Denis, Vallotton, the Seurat of The Circus, the Signac of the Feneon portrait. But after that moment, the short years about 1900, what happened? Architecture went the way of Garnier and Ferret, of Loos and Hoffmann, of Behrens and Berg, and design the way of the Werkbund, but painting went the way to Fauvism and Cubism, to the Briicke and the Blaue Reiter, to Futurism and Kandinsky. It is easy to see the similarities of approach and result in Bindesb^ll's plates, Gaudi's pinnacles of the Sagrada Familia

and

Picasso's pottery, but the dates will not match.

It is

also

easy to see as one, cubist paintings of the geometrical kind and

cubic architecture of the

920s - after

both - or Leger's machine

among

the architects.

They do not concern

But

men and

all

Le Corbusier produced

the machine-worshippers

these comparisons are superficial.

the essential change, which is that and designers once more accepted social responsibilities, that architecture and design consequently became a service, and buildings and objects of daily use were designed not only to satisfy the aesthetic wishes of their designers but also to architects

200

fulfil their practical purposes fully and enthusiastically. Painters and sculptors moved in exactly the opposite direction. They had been cut off from their public already in the nineteenth century. Now they were cut off beyond redemption. Courbet shocked his pubUc because of his message, but that message was perfectly plain to everybody. The Impressionists were attacked for their paintings not being recognizable. But that proved a matter of visual habits. Their aesthetic aims were still those of Titian and Velazquez. Only they had no other than aesthetic aims and that deprived them of the sympathy which the public could extend as long as the spiritual content of a work of art concerned it. To recover these lost spiritual contacts was the most important effort of Gauguin, van Gogh, the Symbolists, Munch, Hodler all of them. But they failed, and while from van Gogh's longing for his paintings to be accepted by simple people, like the broadsheets they read, there might have been a bridge to the architects' and designers' endeavours towards a style for all, there was none from cubism and the dynamic abstract art of Kandinsky. Gropius hoped there might be, and the Bauhaus made the noble effort of inviting Klee and other abstractionists under its roof. No successful effort has been made since. To offer an

abstract artist a wall in a building, or an abstract sculptor a place in a

courtyard

substitute.

force the artist into direct

social service against his better aesthetic conviction, as

principle of Socialist Realism

and was

that

the

of National-Socialist

Reahsm, is even less of a help. In fact there is no help. The gulf between Jackson Pollock and Mies van der Rohe or even Nervi is beyond bridging. This book is not the place to suggest remedies or foretell the future. Here it must be enough to state that what is most disastrous in the visual arts of the twentieth century and what is most hopeful was fully in existence by the time the Age of the World Wars dawned.

20;

Notes on the Text

The True Principles of Pointed Christian Architecture, 1841, p. i. Les

Beaux-Arts

reduits

meme

priticipe, 3

1747, p. 47. The Analysis of Beauty,

PP- }2-34 A. Lodoliana,

Memmi

Elementi

Rome

True Principles,

edited

Oxford

Burke,

Joseph

dell'

1955,

Architettura

1786, Vol.

p. 62.

p. 26.

6 J.ofDes.andManuJ'.,lV, 1850, p. 175. 7 J. of Des. and Manuf, I, 1849, p. 80. 8 Redgrave, Supplementary Report on Design by the Juries 1852, p. 720. .

Owen Jones, in the

The True and

the False Decorative Arts, 1863 (lectures

given in 1852), p. 14. ID j. of Des. and Manuf., V, p. 158 and Supplementary Report on Design,

49 Quoted from

p. 708.

11 J. of Des.

30 Collected Works, xxii, 9. 31 Collected Works, xxii, 25. 32 Collected Works, xx, 40 and 42. 33 Collected Works, xxii. 40. 34 Collected Works, xxii, 33. 35 Collected Works, xxii, 42. 36 Collected Works, xxii, 46. 37 Collected Works, xxii, 26. 38 Collected Works, xxiii, 145-6. 39 Collected Works, xxii, 22. 40 Collected Works, xxii, 23-4. 41 Collected Works, xxii, 47. 42 Collected Works, xxii, 335. 43 Collected Works, xxii, 48. 44 J.W. Mackail, loc. cit., I, 116. 45 J.W. Mackail, loc. cit., II, 24. 46 Collected Works, xxii, 73. 47 Collected Works, xxii, 41. 48 Kindergarten Chats, edn. of 1947, 187.

and Manuf. IV, pp. ,

and 74, etc. So Mrs Stanton tells me, quoting from one of the many unpubHshed letters which will go into her monograph on Pugin. Library Edition, xxxv, p. 47

14 J. of Des. and

Manuf,

a remarkably early Drawing Book of the School of Design, by the Romantic or Nazarene painter William Dyce, pubHshed in 1842-3. The passage in question was reprinted in the Journal

source,

10, etc.,

IV, as before.

the

of Des. and Manuf VI, 1852. 50 Both quotations are taken from S. Tschudi Madsen: Sources of Art ,

Nouveau, Oslo/New York, 1956. They appear on pages 177 and 178.

15 J. of Des. and Manuf, VI, p. 16. 16 Entretiens, I, 451.

17 Entretiens, 18 Entretiens,

472. 289.

II,

Les Formules de

Beaute architecton-

ique moderne Brussels, 1923, pp. 65-6. ,

19 Entretiens,

388.

The Studio,

20 Entretiens,

321.

The only evidence is a

21 Entretiens,

II,

114.

22 Entretiens,

II,

67.

23 Entretiens,

II,

55.

24 Remarks

26 27 28 29

Secular

Morris, World's Classics,

202

1893, 236.

caption in The

Studio of 1899, and there are intrinsic reasons against too early a date.

and Domestic Architecture, Present and Future, 1858, pp. 224 and 109. The Seven Lamps of Architecture The Lamp of Obedience, par. IV and V. Collected Works, xxii, 315. Collected Works, xxii, 15. Collected Works, xxii, 11. J.W. Mackail, The Life of William on

II,

15.

Quoted from Madsen, loc. cit., 300. The pieces are now in the Bethnal Green Museum and are as follows: by Galle a tray, a work-table, a screen and a commode, by Majorelle three cabinets, a tea-table, an armchair and two trays, by Gaillard a chair, by Christiansen a stool, by A. Darras three chairs, by Perol Frcres a wardrobe, a bedstead and a commode, by E. Bagucs a writing-table,

and a stool, by and in addition panelhng and settle by the Germans J.J. Graf and Spindler and a chair designed by Eckmann for Bing. an armchair,

a chair

the station, the assembly halls and the theatre. On the other hand, the station in the grovind-plan of 190 1-4 has already the long fingers, and

Jallot a chair,

can only be interpreted as covered arrival and departure bays for cars, cabs, lorries, etc. This being so, they had very probably already the thin far-projecting conthese

Zweckmassig oder phatitasicuolL, quoted from H. Seling and others: Jugendstil, Heidelberg and Munich, 1959, pp. 417-18. 56 InsLeeregesprochen, 1 897-1900, Inns55

bruck, 1932,

p. 18.

pp. 42-3 ^Jahrhuch 57 Stilarchitektur Deutschen Werkbundes, 191 3, p. 30. .

crete roofs

59 See C.S. Concrete

on slim supports.

Whitney Institute,

in Journal of the Vol. 49, 1953,

p. 524.

M. Christophe Pavvlowski in his new book on Tony Garnier (Centre

60 Erinnerungen an Sturm und Bauhaus,

de Recherche d' Urbanisme, Paris 1967) proves that some of the architecturally most striking buildings of the Cite Industrielle do not belong to the work done by Garnier in Rome in 1901-4 but were added before the publication of the scheme in form of a book in 1917. This applies e.g. to

Munich

1956, p. 154.

Moderne Architektur, Vienna 1896, p. 41.

62 Reports from Committees, 1836, IX, pp. 29, etc.

Supplementary

Report

Design,

p. 708.

64 Essays and p. 178.

Lectures,

4th ed.,

The lecture was given in

191 3, 1882.

Location of Objects Royal Collection (reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty Queen II) 50; Amsterdam, Gemeente Musea 187; Berlin, Louis Werner 65; Copenhagen, Georg Jensen A/S 190; Copenhagen, Kunstindustrimusect 45, 47, 48, 71; Copenhagen, H.P. Rohde 189, 191; Edinburgh, Mrs M.N. Sturrock 124; Frankfurt, Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk 170; Glasgow, The House of Frazer 143; Glasgow Museum and Art Gallery 129; Glasgow University Collection 136, 138; Glasgow School of Art 137; Helensburgh, T. C. Lawson 139; Leicester Museum and Art Gallery 123 Letchworth, Miss Jean Stewart 126; London. GefFrye Museum 122; London, A. Halcrow Verstage 10; London, Victoria and Albert Museum i. 12, 13, 72, 124, 125; Lyon Musce des Beaux-Arts 153, 154, 155; Munich, I)r Kurt Martin 83; Munich, Stadtmuseum 54, 80, 171; Nancy, Musee de TEcole 61, 62. 73, 74; New York, Lewyt Corporation 42; Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum 78; Paris, Coll. Bernard-Fort 46; Paris, Leon Meyer 68; Pans, Musce des Arts Decoratifs 34, 35, 37, 38, 41, 63, 64, 66, 67, 70, 75, 76, 77; Pans, Musee de la France d'Outremer 40; Paris, Musce National d'Art Moderne 69; Strasbourg,

Elizabeth

;

Musee des Beaux-Arts 166; Utrecht, Centraal Museum der Ciemeente 1S6; Walthamstow, William Morris Gallery }2, }}, Washington, Freer Ciallery of Art 28; Wolfsgarten, Prince Ludwig of Hesse 79; Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum 53. 1

;

'.03

Biographical Notes

AsHBKE, Charles Robert (1863- 1942). English architect, designer and author, Ashbee was a pupil of Bodlcy. He founded the Guild and School of Handicraft in 1888, and subsequently moved the guild into the country to Chipping Carnpden. He exhibited regularly at the Arts and Crafts exhibitions and also at the Vienna Secession. The Guild was discontinued

owing Ills.

to the First

World War.

See

124, 126.

Sir Benjamin (i 840-1907). Engengineer. In 1891 he began his long association with John Fowler.

Baker, lish

They were jointly responsible for the London Metropolitan Railway, and

various

stations

and

bridges.

Their greatest work was the Forth Bridge; both were knighted at its

opening

1890.

Baker was

also

consulted for the Aswan Dam and designed the vessel in which Cleopatra's needle was brought to London. See III. 146.

Baudot, Anatolede(i 834-1 91 5). French architect and theoretician. De Baudot was a pupil of Labrouste and Violletle-Duc. As an Inspector of Historic Monuments he carried out the restoration of numerous ancient buildings, and

as a

government

architect he

was

responsible for a great deal of varied building. As a teacher he defined the use of reinforced materials along the lines

he had himself employed

St-Jean de Montmartre. See Ills. 147-8. Behrens, Peter (i 868-1940). German architect, decorator, painter, modeller,

engraver and designer of type. He started within the Jugendstil, but by 1904 had emancipated himself from it and turned towards a rational cubic style. In 1907 he was made consultant to the AEG for which he designed his best buildings. He became director of the Diisseldorf School of Applied

204

Arts in 1903 and Professor of Architecture at the Vienna Academy in 1922. See

Ills. 173-8. (1870-1947). As architect to the town of Breslau he designed the Centenary Hall for the 1913 exhibition. Later he withdrew from architecture. See Ills. 1S9-60.

Bhrg,

Max

BERLAGE,HendricusPetrus(i 856-1934). Dutch architect, studied with Semper and then in Italy. He placed great importance on the honest use of materials,

especially

brick.

His in-

was strongest in the Netherlands, where he published and lectured, and was charged with planning the enlargement of The Hague (19078) and Amsterdam (from 191 3). See fluence

III.

118.

Bernard, Emile (i 868-1941). French painter and craftsman. In 1888 during a stay at Pont-Aven with Gauguin he abandoned academic art and Impressionism to turn to Synthetism or Cloisonnism. From 1905 to 1910 he defended his theories in La Renovation esthetique. Much of his work at PontAven belongs to proto-Art Nouveau. Later his art became more conventional. See III. 46. Bindesb^ll, Thorvald (i 846-1908).

Danish

designer.

architect

training, Bindesb011 designed furni-

leatherwork, etc. Howhe is most important as a ceramic artist. Under the influence of Far Eastern art he developed a very individual style which is abstract and independent and of a timeless sponture, silver,

ever,

taneity. See

Ills.

47-8.

BoussiRON, Simon (i 873-1958). French engineer. He began in the oflfice of Eiffel, but left it in 1899 and spent the rest of his life exploiting the use of reinforced concrete. See

III.

157.

BuNNiNG, James B. (1802-63). In 1843 he was appointed Clerk of the City's

Works for London. He built the Coal Exchange, and also Holloway Prison, 1852, and the Metropolitan Cattle Market (Caledonian Market), 1855. See

III.

Charpentier, Alexandre (i 856-1909). French sculptor and designer. Charpentier was a member of the Cinq, and then of the Six group. He was famous for his furniture and the bronze plaques which he often used for furniture and bookbindings. See III.

Dutert in the building of the famous Hall des Machines at the Paris Exhibition of 1889, which set the stamp on the triumph of iron and steel in modern construction and spread the

knowledge of bilities.

See

III.

multifarious possi-

its 7.

Cranach, Wilhelm Lucas von (born

German painter of portraits 1 861). and landscapes; Cranach also made models of castles. Under the influence of the Russian Julovsky he created ohjets the

d'art. See III. 63. brothers Auguste

(1853864-1930). French glass-workers. Stimulated by the success of Galle at the Paris Exhibition of 1889, they began to produce glassware in their works at Nancy, and after the Chicago Exhibition in 1893 their work achieved an international reputation. See Ills. 6g, 1909)

and

Antonin

73-

Dutert, Ferdinand architect.

854-1906). French

A pupil of Lebas and Ginain,

Dutert concerned himself with the of iron in building. See

rational use III.

865-1902).

German

typographer and designer, hi 1894 he adopted the Juj^endstil in his typographical creations. His version of Art Nouvcau is one in which vegetable forms are prominent, hi 1895-7 he contributed to Pan. In his furniture is given its due emphasis.

structure Ills.

39, 60, 79.

French

832-1923).

above all famous for and steel. Thanks to a is

of irt^n combination of precise calculations and a keen feeling for function, Eiffel's work is in the main line of rationalist architectural development in France. his use

See

Ills.

144-5. (i 871-1925). German studied philosophy and

Endell, August designer. as

artist

at first

he was self-taught.

inspired

by Obrist.

He was 1896 he

Munich.

Later he was Director of the Breslau

Academy. See Ills. 83, 87, 8g. Sir John (18 17-1898). English engineer, best known for his work on

Fowler,

up his own business in and became engineer to the London Metropolitan Railway. In 1865 he became president of the Institute of Civil Engineers - its youngest ever. He worked with Baker {q.v.) on the Forth Bridge, completed in 1887. From 1871 he was general engineering adviser to the Khedive Ismail of Egypt. See III. 146. Gaillard, Eugene (i 862-1933). French furniture designer, one of the collaborators of Samuel Bing. See III. 77. Galle, Emile ( 1 846- 904) French craftsman and designer. After brilliantly railways. Set

1844,

pursuing

he worked and glass works of his took part in the Exhibition which his technical mastery

classical studies

in the pottery

father.

of 1 878, at and originality became known. He is one of the chief exponents of Art Nouveau, his specialities being glass and furniture. See Ills. j6, j8, 74. Garnier, Tony (i 869-1948). French architect, engineer and theorist. Garnier

EcKMANN, Otto

See

engineer. Eiffel

built the Atelier Elvira, in

76.

CoNTAMiN, V. (1840-93). French engineer. Contamin collaborated with

Daum,

Gustave

Eiffel,

won

the Prix de

Rome

in 1899.

he designed his Cue Industrielle. In 1904 Edouard Heriot, the new mayor of Lyons, Ciarnier's native city, discovered him and entrusted to him the municipal works department. See Ills. 153-6. CiAuni Y Cornet, Antoni (i 852-1926). The greatest of Art Ni^uveau architects. Most of his buildini^s are in

While

Italy

:os

Barcelona and arc mentioned in the His chief early works are the Casa Vicens of 187S, and the Palau Guell of 1884-9. The mature works are Sta Coloma de Cervello (begun 1898), the Cjiiell Park (begun 1900), the upper parts of the transept fac^ade of the Sagrada Familia (begun 1903) and the Casa Batllo and Casa Mila (begun 1905). He lived a modest, retired life, wholly dedicated to his work. See Ills. 51, 81-2, 84-6, 103-10. Gauguin, Paul (1848-1903). At first in banking, he gave up his job to devote himself wholly to painting. He contributed to the last Impressionist shows. In 1886 he made his text.

Pont-Aven. Anxious to get away from modern civilization he left for Martinique in 1887. During a second stay at Pont-Aven with Emile Bernard and others he developed a style of tapestry-like two-dimensionality with simple and unbroken colours which sometimes comes near to Art Nouveau, sometimes to the Expressionism of the 1920s. He also did sculpture of a deliberately primifirst

stay at

he stayed for some with van Gogh. He then returned to Pont-Aven, but in 1 89 1 left for good to Hve on Tahiti. A last visit to France (August 1893February 1895) preceded his final stay in Tahiti which he left only for the even greater solitude of the Marquesas Islands where he died. See tive kind. In 1888

months

at Aries

Ills. 39-43. Gilbert, Alfred

Among

854-1934). Sculptor.

best-known works are the Clarence Memorial at Windsor (begun in 1892) and the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain {Eros), Piccadilly. Already in the i88os his style is near Art Nouveau, but of a wholly perhis

sonal variety. See

Ills.

49-50.

GiMSON, Ernest (1864-1920). English craftsman and designer, studied architecture from 1 88 1 to 1884. On the advice of William Morris he joined J.D. Sedding, remaining with him from 1886 to 1888. From 1901 on he

designed furniture and mctalwork. His designs were executed by a group of craftsmen at Cirencester, and subsequently in his own workshops - the Daneway House Workshops. See

III.

123.

Gropius, Walter (Born 1883). Studied architecture in Munich and Berlin 1903-7- In 919 succeeded van de Velde in Weimar at the art school, which he converted into the famous Bauhaus. The Bauhaus, with a teaching staff composed of men like Klee, Kandinsky, Feininger, Schlemmer and Moholy-Nagy, rapidly became one of the great centres of the International 1

Modern movement.

removed

Dessau in 1925. Gropius left it in 1928 and was replaced by Mies van der Rohe. In 1933 the school was disbanded, and its members dispersed in the face of the Nazi storm. Gropius went as a refugee first to England, then to the USA, where he taught at Harvard. Gropius is one of the creators of the style of the twentieth century, which appears already complete in his Fagus factory of 191 1. He is also the most impressive speaker of the social duties and responsibihties of the architect.

See

III.

179.

GuiMARD, Hector architect

and

(i 867-1942). French decorator. Guimard

adopted the ideas of Art Nouveau, of which he was one of the chief representatives in France. He was responsible for the famous entrances to the Metro in Paris, and also designed a number of houses in the west end of Paris,

chief

among them

the Castel

Beranger of 1897-8. See Ills. 97-102. Fran(^ois (1842-1921). Hennebique, French engineer. Was a contractor at Courtrai and Brussels before he went to Paris. From 1879-88 he worked on the combination of iron and concrete, and in 892 he took out patents. He became the leading French designer and contractor for reinforced concrete. His factories of the nineties are of straightforward post and lintel construction, but the house he de1

206

signed for himself in 1904 is a folly built to display the virtues of concrete. See III. 149.

HoENTSCHEL,

Georges (i 855-191 5). French designer and decorator. Hoentschel was given the job of designing the pavilion of the Union

Centrale des Arts Decoratifs at the Exhibition of 1900. See III. 67. Hoffmann, Josef (1870-1956). Austrian

and interior designer. A of Otto Wagner, Hoffmann was one of the founders of the Vienna Secession. In 1903 he co-founded the Wiener Werkstatte, and for the next thirty years it was inspired by him. He began in the Art Nouveau, but by about 1900-1 he had turned away from it to a style of squares and recarchitect

pupil

tangles, largely inspired

by Mackin-

His Convalescent Home at Purkersdorf of 1903 shows this style fully developed, and his Palais Stoclet in Brussels of 1905 demonstrated for the first time that within the style of tosh.

the

twentieth

tality

monumen-

century,

and exquisite elegance could be

a'chieved. See

Ills.

141, 16J-5.

HOLABIRD, William (1854-1923). American architect of the Chicago School, trained by W. Le Baron Jenney and then in the office of

Burnham & Root.

partnership with Martin Roche he pioneered the structural and expressive use of thesteel frame in office buildings, devising

large

broad windows

fixed centre and better

ventilation

movable

use iron in architectural construction,

introduce curves into both his interiors and exteriors. His key works are the Hotel Tassel of 1892, the Hotel Solvay of 1895, etc., and the Maison du Peuple of 1896-9, all in Brussels. Later he abandoned the Art Nouveau originality displayed by these buildings and to

Vienna

88,

igo-i.

Ills,

The

became its between

and

Secession,

President.

relationship

decoration and architecture remained one of his major preoccupations and his influence on the decorative arts in Austria was considerable. In painting,

both Kokoschka and Schiele were inspired by him. His magnum opus in decoration is the mosaics in

Hoffmann's

Palais

See

Stoclet.

Ills.

164, 166.

Koepping, Karl (1848-1914). German painter and glass designer. After studying chemistry he turned to painting in 1869. From 1896 on he contributed to Pan. He tion of Japanese objets inspiration

from

title

which

to fame. See

Rome

made d'art

III.

Henri

are his chief

71.

(1801-75).

He was awarded at

and spent

became the

a collec-

and took

his collection for his

glass vases, etc.,

architect.

win-

Ills.

862-191 8). Austrian painter. After conventional beginnings he suddenly, in 1899, appeared with an Art Nouveau style distinctly his own. He took an active part in the

Labrouste,

Belgian architect. Horta built his first houses in 1886. Three years later he began to

which permitted him

by 1910. See Klimt, Gustav

for

dows'). See III. 24. HoRTA, Victor (1861-1947).

to classicism. See

Jensen, Georg (1866-1 93 5). Danish goldsmith, Jensen was also a sculptor and a ceramic artist. After a stay in Paris (1900-1) he started to make jewellery in collaboration with Magnus Ballin. About 1904 he began to concentrate on silverware. His fame spread almost at once, and had become international

with

sides

('Chicago

went over 90-s.

French the Prix

the age of twenty-three, five

years

Italy.

leader of the Rationalist

school as opposed to the Academy. His use of iron exposed inside the

Bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve in Paris 1843-50 heralded a revolution in architecture. See III. 5. Lalique, Rene (i 860-1945). French jeweller and glass-worker. Lalique in

studied at the

Beaux-Arts

Paris

where he founded his glass workshops. His forms and designs were based on floral

motifs.

collaborated with

:07

Samuel Bing. See Ills. 6j, 64, 66. Lemmkn, Cicorgcs (i 865-1916). Belgian painter and graphic designer, son of an architect, hi 1S99 he joined Les I'lMi;/, then the Libre Hsthetique, and designed posters as well as exhibiting his own work. He collaborated with

van de Velde and van Ryssclberghe the revival of decorative arts in Belgium. See III. 37. Lethaby, William Richard (1857-193 1). English architect. Wrote books of great importance on the theory and history of architecture. He was responsible with Sir George Frampton for the establishment of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, whose principal he was from 1893 to 191 1. He designed the Eagle Insurance Building in Birmingham in 1900, and the church at Brockhampton in 1900in

See III. 121. Leveille, Ernest Baptiste. French craftsman in ceramics and glass. He was a pupil of Rousseau. In 1889 he won a Gold Medal at the Exposition Univer2.

selle.

Loos,

See

III.

Austrian (1870-1933). pupil of Otto Wagner, studied in Dresden and in the

architect.

37.

Adolf

United States. From 1897 onwards he adopted a style which eschewed all ornament and sought to obtain its effects by the articulation of planes and the use of beautiful materials. Loos was not a successful architect, and his buildings are few. After 19227 he lived in Paris. See

LuTYENS,

Sir

III.

167.

Edwin Landseer (1869-

1944). English architect. His architecture was influenced by

Voysey and

early

Shaw,

the Arts and Crafts but

possesses a boldness entirely his

From 1906 he turned

own.

to Palladianism

and Neo-Georgianism. Architect of

New

Delhi,

the

British

building

Washington

Cenotaph

Whitehall. See

Macdonald,

the

sisters

Embassy and III.

the 118.

Margaret

(1865-1933) and Frances (1874-1921). English craftswomen. Margaret Macdonald was a designer and worker

208

metals, stained glass and cmbroidery. In 1900 she married Charles

Rennie Mackintosh and collaborated with him in much of his work. Both sisters trained at the CJlasgow School of Art, and Frances was a teacher there from 1907 onwards. She worked

sometimes alone and sometimes

collaboration with her sister. In 1899 she married J.H. McNair and collaborated with him in the designing

of furniture and stained

glass.

See

Ills.

127, i2g.

Mackintosh, Charles Rennie (18681928). Scottish architect

Studied

the

Art. Assistant

firm of

and designer.

Glasgow School of

and

later partner in the

Honeyman and

Keppie.

The

commission to build the Glasgow School of Art which he was given in 1897

made

works

his

fame. His principal

between 1897 and about 1905. They are Windyhill,Kilmacolm (i 899-1901), Hill House, Helensburgh (1902-4), tea rooms for Miss Cranston (i 896-191 1) and the Scotland Street School (1904-5). Mackintosh and his group exhibited in Vienna in 1900 and in Turin in 1902. See Ills. 127-8, are

all

130-9, 142-3-

Mackmurdo, Arthur Heygate

(1851-

and designer. Mackmurdo travelled with Ruskin to Italy. In 1882 he founded the Century Guild, and two years later he also founded the journal Hobby Horse. 1942). English architect

From c. 1883 he designed furniture, wallpaper, textiles and metalwork. In 1904 he abandoned architecture in order to devote himself completely to social theories. See Ills. 27, 29-30, 32-3, 111-13. Maillart, Robert (i 872-1940). Swiss engineer, inventor of the 'mushroom

which unite in one member the function of load and support. In 1901 he began to apply his principles to the bridges that made him famous. See III. 158. Majorelle, Louis (i 859-1929). French furniture designer. After studying in Paris, Majorelle took over the cerapiers'

mics workshop of

his

father.

him

The

abandon period imitation for original work. His most interesting pieces date from around the time of the Exhibition of success of Galle led

1900

Paris.

See

III.

73.

William

(1834-96). English designer, craftsman, poet and social reformer, the fountam-head of the rebirth of the crafts and of the sense of

Morris,

the social responsibilities of artist and

Morris was initially inby Ruskin. He began to take an interest in craft and design when

architect.

spired

he built a house for himself in 1859. His own firm was founded in 1861, and in 1877 he started on his long series of lectures on art and social problems. His influence was immense. The last of the crafts he tried his hand at was the art of the book (Kelmscott Press,

founded 1890). See

Ills.

10-

12, 2g, 72.

Nyrop,

Martin

849-1925). Danish used traditional motifs but experimented with the (i

Nyrop

architect.

use of cast iron. See III. 120. Obrist, Hermann (i 863-1927). Swiss

De Stijl. He specialized in housing schemes (e.g. as City Architect of Rotterdam, 191 8) and pioneered the International Style, admiring Berlage's functionalism and truth to materials. Later he renounced strict functionalism, but remained concerned with human needs in architecture. See

Parker,

III.

188.

Barry.

See

Unwin,

Sir

Raymond. Paxton,

Joseph (1801-65). English In 1826 he became superintendent of the Duke of Devonshire's gardens at Chatsworth. In 1836 he began to erect a great conservatory 300 feet in length, which was completed in 1840, and enabled Paxton in 1850 to design for the Great Exhibition the Crystal Palace, a building entirely of glass and iron and the first ever erected by the technique of prefabrication. See III. 1. Perret, the brothers Auguste (1874and Gustave (1875-1952). 1954) French builders, i.e. contractors for architectural work. They were the Sir

horticulturalist.

sculptor and designer. First studied

to use reinforced concrete in the architecture of private buildings, and

science and then art, including sculp-

they developed

892 he started an embroidery workshop in Florence and moved it

turally

ture. In

in 1894. He was one of the of the Vereinigte Werkst'dtten fur Kunst und Handwerk in Munich. His works are few but influential. In the field of sculpture the most important piece is the model

Munich

founders

for

all-but-abstract

monument

done c. 1900. See III. 54. Olbrich, Joseph Maria

(i 867-1908). Austrian architect, craftsman and book-designer. Travelled to Rome and Tunisia, then studied with Otto Wagner in Vienna. Co-founder, with Klimt, of the Secession whose building he designed. Called by the Grand Duke of Hesse to Darmstadt, where he designed the Mathildenhohe artists' colony. See III. 140. OuD, Jacobus Johannes Pieter (1890-

1963).

Dutch

architect,

member of

first

its use both strucand aesthetically. They kept away, however, from any utilization of the possibilities of concrete for wide spans and bold cantilevering. Their vision of architecture was still that of the classical styles of post and lintel. The principal works are the house in the rue Franklin of 1902, the garage in the rue de Ponthieu of 1905, the church of Notre Dame at Raincy of 1922-3 and the new buildings at Le Havre erected from 1945 onwards as part of a plan ot recon-

struction. See Ills. 130-2. Prior, Edward Schroder (i 852-1932). English architect, the most original in the Arts and Crafts group. Professor at Cambridge from 1912 to 1932. He also produced some outstanding books on English medieval architecture. See III. 117. Prouve, Victor (i 858-1943). French

209

painter, engraver, sculptor and decora-

and silverware. As

Frouve studied in Nancy and Paris and subsequently worked for Galle. After Galle's death he was appointed President of the Nancy School where he continued his work until after the First World War. See

Jensen

tor,

a collaborator with he had a decisive influence on Danish design. See Ills. i8g, (q.v.),

igi.

Rousseau, Eugene (1827-91). French craftsman in ceramics and glass. Rousseau's works are far less known than

to the churches, buildings and houses in

they deserve to be. What he did in the mid-eighties is among the most daringly novel work anywhere in Europe. See III. 34, 33. Sant'Elia, Antonio (i 880-1916). Italian architect and theorist. His early work was influenced by the Vienna School.

massive free Romanesque style (the major exception is the shingled

He was fascinated by the city and exhibited his vision of the future, the

Ills.

62, 68, 73.

Richardson, Henry Hobson (1838-86). American architect, studied at the Beaux-Arts in Paris and worked for Labrouste before returning

United offices,

States.

pubHc

built

Stoughton

House

Cambridge,

Mass.). Office buildings such as the

Marshall Field Wholesale Store in Chicago (1885-7) influenced the Chicago School. See III. 20. RiEMERSCHMiD, Richard (i 868-1957).

German

then architect. In 1 897 he was one of the founders of the Vereinigte Werkstatten fiir Kunst und Handwerk and he took part in the Paris Exhibition of 1900. He was Director of the School for Decorative Arts in painter,

Munich from 191 2 to 1924, and in 1926 became Director of the Cologne Werkschule. His most important archi-

achievement was the interior of the Munich Schauspielhaus (1901);

tectural

his designs for furniture are

among

the most progressive of their day. See Ills.

80, 168-g, 170-1, ig8.

RiETVELD, Gerrit Thornas (born 1888). Dutch architect and furniture designer. Trained first as a cabinetmaker, then as an architect, he joined

Stijl and throughout his career maintained an interest in interior

design. See

Ills.

Roche, Martin

186-7.

855-1927). American

Chicago by W. Le Baron Jenney. As partner of William Holabird (^.i^) he specialized

architect, trained in

in interiors. See

III.

24.

RoHDE, Johan (1856-1935). Danish designer. At first a painter, and considerably influenced by Maurice Denis, he

210

later

turned to designing furniture

at Milan in 191 4. A he never fully shared the aims of Futurism, with which his

Citta

Nuova,

sociahst,

name

associated.

the First

He was

killed in

World War, and only one

his designs

was ever

Como.

Ills.

See

built, a

house

ig2-j.

Sauvage, Henri (1873-1932). French architect. Sauvage collaborated with Frantz Jourdain on the Samaritaine building and was responsible for

numerous modern buildings

in Pans, including the house at no. 26 rue Vavin of 1912-13. See III. ig4. Sehring, Bemhard (i 855-1932). German architect. Sehring is primarily

known

for the theatres he built, for

instance those of Diisseldorf, Bielefeld and Berlin, but his most interesting

building is the Tietz Store in the Leipziger Strasse in Berlin of 1898, with its expanses of sheer glass. See III.

g6.

Shaw, Richard Norman (1831-1912). Side by side with Webb the chief reformer of domestic architecture in England. His style was inspired by the Enghsh seventeenth-century vernacular of the Home Counties, by seventeenth-century Dutch architecture and the William and Mary and Queen Anne styles in England. His influence

was wide and wholesome.

His style was complete by 1866-7 (Glen Andred, also Bingley church), but the climax was in the mid-seven-

New

Zealand Chambers in London, his own house in Hampstead, Swan House in Chelsea with

ties

the City of

and such country houses as Adcote. About 1 890 he changed allegiance and went classical and at the same time grander than he had been before (Chesters 1 89 1 Piccadilly Hotel 1 905) ,

See

14, 16, 17.

Ills.

856-1924). American architect. Sullivan studied at the Ecole

Sullivan, Louis

des Beaux-Arts in Paris under Vaudremer. He was a true precursor of

Tiffany, Louis Comfort (1848-1933). The most famous of American craftsmen, designers and entrepreneurs in the Arts and Crafts. His father owned a store famous for elegance and incorporating a silverware department. The son set up on his own in 1879. He quickly became famous for interior decoration, stained glass (the Tiffany Glass Company was incorporated in

and

then

Art introduced about 1894 and very soon handled by 1886),

Nouveau

his

Favrile

exquisite

glass,

modem

Bing

stature

original. Tiffany's interiors

architecture, though his was recognized onlv after his death. Frank Lloyd Wright was trained under him from 1887 to 1893. Sullivan's key works are the Auditorium Building in Chicago (1887-9), memorable chiefly for its feathery ornament, and the cellular Wain-

wright Building at St Louis (1890) and Guaranty Building at Buffalo (1894-5). The acme is the Carson Pirie Scott store in Chicago of 18991904. See

Ills.

23, 23-6, 182.

880-1938). German architect. Hic exhibition building of 19 1 4 is by far his most darmg work. Later, for a short time, he designed in the spirit of the then potent German Expressionism. Soon, however, he fell in with the Berlin group of those believing in the International Modern (housing estates, Berlin, especially the

Bruno

Taut,

Britz

estate).

architect

introduced

He was made Magdeburg and

strong

colours

city

there the

of terrace houses. In 1932 he was invited to Moscow, and from there went to Japan, finally was fac^ades

professor at Istanbul. See

Telford, Thomas

iSo-i. (1757-1834). English Ills.

engineer. The son of a shepherd and first apprenticed to a stonemason, he later became Shropshire County Surveyor. He is famous as the builder of canals, aqueducts, roads and bridges both in England and Scotland. In 1820 he was made the first president of the Institute of Civil Engineers. civil

See

III.

in Paris.

While

Favrile

wholly

show

the influence of Morris and of the Early Christian and Italian Romanesque styles.

Unwin,

See

III.

70.

Raymond

(i 863-1940) and Parker, Barry (i 867-1947). English architects and town planners. In 1904 they were commissioned to design Letchworth, the first of the gardencities, and in 1907 the Hampstead Garden Suburb. Raymond Unwin's

Sir

book Town Planning in Practice greatly influenced his own and the next generation. See III. ig7. Eugene (i 856-1922). French designer of furniture and fac^ades (for the architect Biet). Vallin served his apprenticeship at Nancy. He pro-

Vallin,

duced a good deal for Gothic and neo-Gothic churches, decidedly under the influence of Viollet-le-Duc. In 1895 he freed himself from period imitation and turned to the Art Nouveau of Nancy. His furniture keeps a balance between emphasis on abstract curves and motifs from nature. See

III. 73 de Velde, Henri (i 863-1957). Van de Velde began in Belgium as a painter, but around 1893 he turned to architecture and craftsmanship. In 1896 Bing asked him to furnish a room in his shop 'L'Art Nouveau', and in 1897 he exhibited at Dresden. His success in Germany was such that he settled there in 899. In 90 he was

Van

called to

Weimar

Grand Duke.

as consultant to the

1906 he became head

of the Weimar School of Apphed Arts which later became the Bauhaus. His

works

principal

are the

Wcrkbutid

C^ologne, and the Kroller-Mijller Museum at Otterlo (1937-53)- He is equally important

Theatre

1914

as a theoretical writer.

He began

down his theories in 1894 and had by then already demonstrated his abstract, linear, tensile style in book decoration. His furniture has the same put

qualities. See

Ills.

44, 53, 38, 78.

ViOLLET-LE-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel French architect and (1814-79). theorist. He was the leading European restorer of historic buildings, but also designed churches and flats. His writings were less traditionalist and far more influential than his work. Sec III.

52.

VoYSEY, Charles F. Annesley (18571941). Voysey is the most important English architect and designer of the generation after Morris. He was a pupil of Seddon and then of Devey. In the eighties he designed wallpapers

from 1889 houses. Withhad estabhshed him-

ings).

1904 he abandoned

curves,

and

Vienna

the

lush

Postal

Savings Bank of 1905 achieved one of the masterpieces of early twentiethcentury rationalism. See Ills. 161-2.

Whbb,

Philip

( 1

83 -1 9 1 1

English archi-

and designer. Red House and Webb's country houses after it, such asjoldwyns of 1873, Smeaton Manor of 1878, Standen of 1892, the larger and more idiosyncratic Rounton Grange of 1872-6, and Clouds of 881-91, had as much influence as Shaw's houses, both in England and abroad. Webb built one church, Brampton in Cumberland, before 1874. He also designed furniture and metalwork. See Ills 8, 10, 13, 72. Whistler, James Abbot McNeill (18341903). American painter. He was trained in Paris, and after 1859 lived mainly in London. Whistler was greatly influenced by Japanese art, which he collected, and his interior decoration schemes - probably inspired by his friend Edward Godwin tect

self as a favourite architect

were revolutionary in their simplicity and use of plain, pale colours. He decorated Oscar Wilde's house in

houses,

Tite Street and,

and

textiles;

in ten years he

of country of them comfortable, informal, and only in the most general way still adhering to historicism, i.e. the Tudor vernacular. Voysey's designs, carried out by factories, not by craftsmen, are of great freshness and crispness and had much influence on the Continent. See Ills 55-6, 114-6, all

122, 125.

Wagner, Otto

(1841-1918). Appointed Professor at the Vienna Academy in 1 894, Wagner was already well known as an architect inspired by the Italian Renaissance. His book Moderne Architektur was based on his inaugural lecture and became a classic of the architectural revolution. His buildings between 1898 and 1904 are in a

heavy Art Nouveau, inspired by the Baroque and to a certain extent by his pupil Olbrich (Vienna Metro, Hofpavillon and Karlsplatz stations, and unexecuted designs for public build-

212

elaborately, the

'Peacock Room' of the Leyland house. His own house in Tite Street, by

Edward Godwin

(1878) was strikingly original with an asymmetrical white-

painted exterior and yellow and white

rooms. In his paintings, which shocked Ruskin, Whistler combined Impressionism with echoes ofjapanese woodcuts. See Ills 28-g.

White, Stanford can architect.

Richardson

Church

853-1906). Ameri-

Worked under H.H.

designing of Trinity Boston. Joined McKim

in the

and Mead and was the most

brilliant

designer in the partnership. Sec

III.

21.

Wiener, Rene (1856-1939). A member of a family of Nancy bookbinders and a bookbinder himself. He abandoned period imitation and applied the process of pyrogravure to the working of leather, collaborating for instance with Toulouse-Lautrec and

Victor Prouve. His best years are the

are characterized

nineties. See Ills 61, 62.

plans,

Jens Ferdinand (1863Danish painter and sculptor.

WiLLUMSEN, 1958).

During

his

stays

Paris

up to the twenties were the Imperial Hotel at Tokyo (1916-22) and Midway Garden, Chicago (19 14). Here a passion for angular, abstract ornament and fanciful detail comes to the fore, and was to dominate much of his later work (Hollyhock House, Los Angeles 1920, Price Tower, Bartlcsville 1953-6). He largest buildings

(1888-9,

1890-4) Willumsen was powerfully influenced by Gauguin and Bernard in

Pont-Aven

their

style,

and he

exhibited with the Independents. In

1890 he met Redon, and that also

left

its

mark on Willumsen's work. See

III.

45.

Wright, Frank Lloyd (i 869-1959). American architect. Wright was in the office of Louis Sullivan from 1887 to 1893

and then,

in the first

rarely

decade of

new

Modern

Guggenheim Museum

Church

into the pattern of the so(Falling

Water, 1936). The most prominent buildings of his old age are the two for the Johnson Wax Company at Racine, Wis. (1936-9, 1950) and the

Buffalo (1906), the Unity Oak Park, Chicago (1906), and houses such as the Martin House, Buffalo (1906) and the Coonley (1907) ing

fits

called International

century, designed his most important buildings, the Larkin Buildthe

by low spreading

cantilevcrcd roofs and interpenetration of the internal spaces. His

New

York

(1956-9), a monument to its architect rather than a functional museum.

Frank Lloyd Wright's imagination was of truly Welsh fertility, and remains an inspiration to those who are dissatisfied with rationalism. See

and Robie (1909) Houses at Chicago. Two publications of his work in Berlin in 19 10 and 191 1 inaugurated his influence on Europe. His houses

Ills

183-5.

Photographic Acknowledgments Aerofilms Ltd. 195; Amigos de Gaudf 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 106, 108, no; Wayne Andrews 21 Architectural Association, London (photo Yerbury) 160; Architectural Press, London i Archives Photographiques, Paris 5; Arts Council of Great Britain 9; Jay W. Baxtresser 184; courtesy Mrs M. Bodelsen 39, 40, 41, 45, 47; Socictc des Entreprises Boussiron, Paris 157; British Council (photos Wickham) 27, 32, 113, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135; British Rail 6; Cauvin 46; Chevojon 7, 145, 194; courtesy ;

;

Prof Carl

Condit 24; Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, Paris 93; 118; John Craven, 98, 102, 148, 150, 152; Jean Desmartcau 97, 100, loi H.G. Dorrett 114; courtesy Prof Henry-Russell Hitchcock 20; Quentin Hughes i97;JacquelineHyde48, 143; Benno Keysselitz 37, 38, 56, 61, 62, 67, 73, 83; Service des Halles et Marches, Lyon 156; Eric de Mare 18, 49, 116, 121; Mas 51, 104, 105, 107, 109; Giinther Mehling 54, 171 K.G. Meyer 140, 161 Studio Minders 95, 163, 164, 165; Morian 94; Ian Nairn 14; National Monuments Record, London 8, 15 (photo Quentin Lloyd), 16, 17, 22, 131; Richard Nickel 25, 183; Pierre d'Otreppe 90, 91, 92; Reiffcnstein 167; Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (photo LiHan Zangenberg) 120; Royal Institute of British Architects, London 55; Sanderson & Dixon 115; Walter Scott 3; Edwin Smith 2, 146; Dr Franz Stoedtner 87, 89, 179, 180, 198; Unilever Merseyside Limited 196; United States Information Service, Paris 23; Bildarchiv der Osterreichischc Nationalbibliothek, Vienna 162; John Webb (Brompton Studio) 72. Country Life

4, 117,

;

213

Select Bibliography

For

bibliography see

a detailed

Harmondsworth and Baltimore

Pioneers of

General Centuries

New Architecture,

fPehcan

Harmondsworth

History

1968.

Milan 1956. Klimt: F. Novotny and Gustav Klimt, London and

;

classique

France,

Archi-

vol.

York

L. Miinz, G. Kiinstler and Pevsner, Adolf Loos, London and Nes*.

Loos:

VII

York

1848-1900, Paris 1957 :

Dobai.

New York

1968.

France L. Hautecoeur, Histoirede

Art.

i960.

Hoffmann: G. Vcronesi, Josef Hoffmann,

Countries

USA

York

igth and

Art), Baltimore 1963, revised edition,

tecture

edition.

Gaudi: G.R. CoUins, Antonio Gaudi,

H.R. Hitchcock, 20th

Modern Design, revised

1968.

Condit, American Building

The Nineteenth Century,

1966.

Howarth, T. Mackintosh and the

Mackintosh: Rennie

New

Charles

Modern

Movement, London 1952.

i960.

Morns: J.W.

Mackail, The Life oj William Morris, London 1 899 (World's

Movements and Styles An Souveau S. Tschudi Madsen, Sources of An Nouveau, New York and Oslo

Classics edition 1950).

Thompson, The Work of William New York 1966 and London

Morris,

1956.

1967.

Constantine (ed.) and P. Selz, Art Nouveau, New York 1959. R. Schmutzler, Art Souveau, 1962 and New York 1964.

Henderson, William Morris, Lon-

New

York

1967.

London E.N. Rogers, August e Milan 1955.

Perret:

H. Seling and others, Jugendstil, Heidelberg and Munich 1959. Concrete: P. Collins, Concrete,

don and

Shaw: R. Blomfield, Richard Norman Shaw, R.A., London 1940.

London Sullivan: H. Morrison, Louis Sullivan,

1959-

Prophet of Modern Architecture,

The

Ferret,

Chicago

School:

Condit,

Chicago School of Architecture, Chicago 1964.

American Buildings Survey, Chicago and Nearby Illinois Area, ed.

Mag-

nolia, Mass. 1958.

Tiffany: R. Koch, Louis C. Tiffany, Rebel in Glass, New York 1964.

Historic

J.W. Rudd.

Ilhnois 1966.

Voyscy:

Brandon-Jones, in Archi-

tectural Assn. Jour.,

Webb: W.R. Biographical Gamier: C. Pawlowski, Tony Garnier, Paris 1967.

214

his

LXXII,

1957-

Lethaby, Philip Webb and

Works, Oxford 1935.

Wnght: H.R. of Materials,

Hitchcock, In the Nature

New

York

1942.

Index

Paj^e

numbers

in italic refer to illustrations

Architecture 9-18, 28-59, 90-7, 104-13, 117-24, 132-7, 141-3, 147-^9, 17587, 190-201

Endell,

August

86, 87,

go-i

Ashbee, C.R. 125, 128, 142, 144

Baker, Sir Benjamin 149 Barlow, William H. ly Baudot, Anatole de 150-1

171, 172-5, 176-7, 179, 197,

200 Berg,

Max

162-j, 200

Berlage, H.P. 180, 121, 122

80, 82

Gamier, Tony 156-60, 175-6, 196-7 Gaudi, Antoni 60, 62,

Blake, William 43

Gimson, Ernest 124, 125 Gropius, Walter 176, 177,

Book-bindings Boussiron,

47, 72-j 160, 161

Simon

Bunning, J.B.

52,

53-6, 67,

Leveille, E. B. 52 Lodoli, Abbate 9 Louis, Victor 1

Loos,

Adolf

Gilbert, Alfred 62-3, 68, 98 179,

Lutyens, Sir

60-1, 77-9, 147 Charpentier, Alexander

82,

83 Coignet, Francois 150 Cole, Henry 10, 21, 27, 72 Contamin, V. 17, ig Cranach, Wilhelm Lucas von 76

Darby, Abraham

Daum

Fran(;ois

Donaldson, T.L. 171 D'Aronco, Raimondo 190 Dutcrt, Ferdinand 17, 9

104,

152, 160

Hoenstchel, Georges 77, 78 Hoffmann, Josef 142, 162, 165, 166-7, i<^9, 179, 200

Hogarth, William 9 Holabird, William 58, 5g

g2-6

Howard, Ebenezer

Jensen,

Georg

195, 197

Baron 58

i2g,

130,

Eiffel,

71, 84, 85

Gustave 146, 147, 148

166-7,

i2g,

Mackmurdo, Arthur H. /

14,

42,

48-9, 50, 66, 68, 15, 116-17, 144 4<^',

Madox Brown, Ford

18,

Robert 160, 161

Majorelle, Louis 80, 8j Marinetti, F.T. 191, 197

Martin, Camille 61-2 Metalwork 62-5, 93-5, 98103,

127,

130-1,

171-2,

Meyer, Adolf 176 Monier, Joseph 50 Morris, William 18, 20-1. i

22,

23, 24-6, 27-9. 33, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 80, 109, 115, 128,

143, 194,

Newton, Gustav

Margaret

200

Hermann

144, 149,

177, 179

EcKMANN, Otto

133-g, 140,

132,

Mackintosh,

Muthesius,

188, i8g

Jewellery 74-6, 128-9 Jones, Owen 10, 27

Klimt,

120,

188^^

Horta, Victor 43, 65-6, go,

Jenney, William

brothers 78, yg, 81

23,

Edwin

sisters, Margaret and Frances I2g, 130, iji Mackintosh, Charles Rennie

Maillart,

Hennebique,

i6g,

Macijonalu

43, 45,

Guimard, Hector g8-ioj, 154

glass 50-5, 58,

162,

130, 131

Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 18

Ceramics and

144,

176, 200

143-4, 145

187, 197, 201

14, 15

120, 124, 125,

127

121

63, 66,

Gauguin, Paul 71, 200

Cieorges 70, 71

W.R.

Lethaby,

162,

86-9, 91, 104-5, 106, 107, 108, iog-13, 120, 200

Bernard, Emile 58, 59, 67 Bindcsb011,Thorvald58, 60-1, 200

150

15, 16,

Rene 74-6

Lemmen,

FiNLEY, James 12

Fowler, Sir John 147, i^p Furniture 21-3, 80-7, 114, 116, 125-7, 138-40, 147, 172, 186-8

Gaillard, Eugene 83, 84 Galle, Emile 50, 51, 53, 72-3,

Beardsley, Aubrey 115, 144 Behrens, Peter 71, 147, 162,

Labrouste, Henri Lalique,

88,

^<5^,

Ernest

Nyrop, Martin

121, 123

169

Koepping, Karl

78, 79

C^brist,

Hermann

215

Olbrich, Joseph 141, 142, Oud.J.J.P. 187

Owen, Robert

192

Salt, Sir Titus 192, igj Sant'Eha, Antonio 190-1, 192, 198

Sauvage, Henri 192, 19J Schmidt, Karl 147

Parker, Barry ig6 Paxton, Sir Joseph n Perret, Augustc 152, 162, 200

Scott,

153-5,

Northmore

127,

140,

UNWiN.SirRaymond 142,

144, 196 Scott, Sir Gilbert 16, 17

Shaw, Richard Norman 78, 81

Welby

9, 10, 13,

16,27

Richardson,

H.H.

Soufflot II 181, 183

Riemcrschmid,

84,

197

Thomas

186,

187

Roche, Martin 58, 39 Roebhngs, the 147 Rohde, Johan 188-g

Dante Gabriel 18 Rosso, Menardo 190 Rousseau, Eugene 50-1 Ruskin, John 13, 18, 45 Rossetti,

216

66,

113,

Emanuel

16,

17, 33, 64, 65, 95, 150,

164

Voysey, C.F. A.

23, 68-9, 74, 115, 117, 118-19, 120, ^25, 127, 132, 144, 196

Wagner, Otto 164-5 Webb, Philip 18, 21,

46, 47

34, 35

Richard

85, 147, 170-2,

Rietvcld, Gerrit

Heywood

71-4, 84, 85,

177, 179 Viollet-le-Duc,

30-2, 33, 115, 120, 128, 194 Sommaruga 190

Sumner,

70,

28,

Sullivan, Louis 58, 60-1, 180,

Redgrave, Richard 10

169, 197

Vallin, Eugene 81, 82 Van de Velde, Henri 56, 67,

Sehring, Bernhard 96, 97 Semper, Gottfried 10

Prior, E.S. 120, 141 Pritchard, T. F. 12

Prouvc, Victor 75, 76, Pugin, Augustus

Baillie

design 42-3, 46, 57, 70-1, â&#x20AC;˘43-4

22, 23,

29-31, 33, 55, 80, 115 Whistler, James McNeill 43,' 24,

Tapestry and embroidery 66-7

59,

Taut, Bruno 103, 178, 179, 180 Telford, Thomas 13 Textiles and wallpapers 23-7, 46, 48-9, 68-9, 172-3 Tiffany, Louis C. 78, 79, 113 Town planning 156-9, 192-8 Typography and graphic

44-5 White, Stanford 35 Wiener, Rene 72-3 Wilde, Oscar 171 Willumsen,J.F. 58 Wright, Frank Lloyd

106,

179-80, 182-5, 187

Wyatt, Matthew Digby 13, 16

10,

PRAEGER WORLD OF ART PAPERBACKS The Sources of Modern

Architecture and Design by

NIKOLAUS

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The later half of the nineteenth century saw an extraordinary flowering of ideas and techniques in architecture and design. listorical imitation was ending and artists were embracing new styles, forms, and materials. The lavish variety of products textiles, typography, bookbinding, furniture, jewelry, ceramics, glass, and ironv/ork-â&#x20AC;&#x201D; are fully described and illustrated in Professor Pevsner's account. The era began with William Morris' attempts to re-establish the aesthetic value of items of everyday use, and continued with y\rt Nouveau and its campaign to drive out historicism. Art Nouveau was short-lived because its interest in harmonizing the individual piece with its setting was antithetical to mass production. It gave way, first in Austria and Germany, to the idealization of the straight Later, the new machine style was extolled by the Futurists in line. Italy and the Bauhaus in Germany. In architecture, the threads of development of this critical era include advances in the use of iron in construction the Chicago school and the first skyscrapers the Domestic Revival in England and its concentration on private houses the extravagances of Art Nouveau, culminating in Gaudi; Coignet, Perret, and Gamier and their pioneerand Behrens, Loos, ing work with reinforced concrete in France and Gropius with their functional style, expressive of a machine age. As the twentieth century began, modern city planning emerged in the ideas of Gamier and Sant'Elia and in the garden city experiments in England. Professor Pevsner concludes that architects and designers now became aware of and accepted social responsibility, in contrast to the painters, who became more isolated and alienated. Professor Pevsner was a member of the organizing committee of a Council of t^urope exhibition called " The Sources of the Twentieth Century," which was held in Paris in the winter of 1960-61. The present work, first published as part of a commemorative volume, is here presented with additional illustrations in a more convenient I

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THE AUTHOR Nikolaus Pevsner was the first Professor of the History of Art at Birkbeck College, University of London, retiring in 1967. His Outlines oj European Architecture and Pioneers of Modern Design are :

widely known.

complete catalog of Praeger World of Art Paperbacks currently in print will he sent at your request

A. PRAEGER, Publishers Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10003

FREDERICK III Pourth