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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Conducting Thermographic Inspections in Electrical Substations: A Survey
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Applied Sciences Vol. 12, No. 20 ( 2022-10-14), p. 10381-
    Details
    In: Applied Sciences, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 20 ( 2022-10-14), p. 10381-
    Abstract: Liberalization of the electricity market has forced the use of economic and efficient maintenance techniques. Thus, it is necessary to extend the useful life of the facilities in a perfect state of service, and with quality supply for customers. Furthermore, thermography is a maintenance technique that can be implemented quickly, has low cost, and is very effective in terms of the results provided. For this reason, it is very widespread within the electricity sector. As substations are critical facilities within the electrical supply, thermographic inspections are carried out on them very frequently. However, to ensure that the results obtained are reliable, a series of requirements must be met. A compilation of the complete process of the performance of a correct thermography in substations is shown. The factors that affect performing a correct thermographic inspection are indicated. These can be procedural, technical, and environmental. In addition, conditions for conducting thermographic inspections and the action to performed on a hot spot are indicated. The hot spot is usually identified with a current and wind speed other than nominal; these two variables can mask the true severity of the hot spot. For this reason, the extrapolation of the detected temperature to the nominal current conditions and in the absence of wind is carried out using a proposed formula. Finally, two examples of application of the proposed formula and the recommended action on them are exposed.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2076-3417
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/app122010381
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2704225-X
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  • 2
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    Online Resource
    Influence of the Population Density of Cities on Energy Consumption of Their Households
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Sustainability Vol. 13, No. 14 ( 2021-07-06), p. 7542-
    Details
    In: Sustainability, MDPI AG, Vol. 13, No. 14 ( 2021-07-06), p. 7542-
    Abstract: 36% of the energy consumed and 40% of emissions are due to buildings in the residential and tertiary sectors. These antecedents have forced governments to focus on saving energy and reducing emissions in this sector. To help government decision-making and facilitate energy planning for utilities, this work analyzes the energy consumption that occurs in city buildings. The information used to carry it out is publicly accessible. The study is carried out from the point of view of the population density of the cities, and these are analyzed individually. Furthermore, the area actually occupied by the city has been considered. The results are studied by inhabitant and household. The proposed method has been applied to the case of Spanish cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants. The results show that the higher the population density, the higher the energy consumption. This occurs both per inhabitant and per household. Furthermore, the consumption of electrical energy is inelastic, which is not the case with the consumption of thermal origin.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2071-1050
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/su13147542
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2518383-7
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Influence of Population Income and Climate on Air Pollution in Cities Due to Buildings: The Case of Spain
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Atmosphere Vol. 12, No. 8 ( 2021-08-16), p. 1051-
    Details
    In: Atmosphere, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 8 ( 2021-08-16), p. 1051-
    Abstract: Half of the world’s population lives in cities. In addition, more than 40% of greenhouse gas emissions are produced in buildings in the residential and tertiary sectors. Therefore, cities, and in particular their buildings, have a great influence on these emissions. In fact, they are reflected in several of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Any measure taken to reach these goals has a significant impact from the point of view of reducing greenhouse gases. An understanding of these goals is the basis of greenhouse gas mitigation. This work analyzed the CO2 emissions from the buildings in cities as a function of the economic income of their inhabitants. For this, databases published by official sources were used. The origins of the CO2 are usually emitted by buildings were analyzed—electrical and thermal, in the form of natural gas. Another variable that influences these emissions is climate. To study only the income variable, the influence of climate has been eliminated. Also, to facilitate analysis, an index has been introduced. As an example of application of the proposed methodology, Spanish cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants were studied. The analysis was carried out by household and by inhabitant. The results showed the following: the higher the income of the citizens, the higher the total and thermal emissions; thermal consumption is elastic, while electrical consumption is inelastic; emissions of electrical origin are almost constant; emissions from electrical energy are greater than those from thermal energy; as income increases, the ratio between emissions of electrical and thermal origin decreases.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2073-4433
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/atmos12081051
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2605928-9
    SSG: 23
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  • 4
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Influence of Population Income on Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions in Buildings of Cities
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Sustainability Vol. 13, No. 18 ( 2021-09-13), p. 10230-
    Details
    In: Sustainability, MDPI AG, Vol. 13, No. 18 ( 2021-09-13), p. 10230-
    Abstract: More than half of the world’s population lives in cities. A large part of the emissions and energy consumption corresponds to buildings, both in the residential sector and in the service sector. This means that a large part of the measures taken by governments to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions are focused on this sector. With this background, this paper studies energy consumption in city buildings and the CO2 emissions they produce. It only makes use of publicly available data. The analysis is made from the point of view of income per inhabitant, and the results are obtained per inhabitant and household. To facilitate the analysis of the results, an index has been defined. The main contributions of this work are to analyze energy consumption and emissions due to buildings, study them from the point of view of the income of their inhabitants, and consider cities individually. The proposed methodology has been applied to the case of Spain. A total of 145 Spanish cities that have more than 50,000 inhabitants have been studied. The results show that the higher the income, the higher the consumption and emissions. Electricity consumptions are almost inelastic, while those of thermal origin are greatly influenced by the level of income. Regarding CO2 emissions, the percentage of emissions of electrical origin with respect to total emissions is higher than that of thermal origin. In addition, the lower the income, the higher the percentage of emissions of electrical origin.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2071-1050
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/su131810230
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2518383-7
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  • 5
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    CO2 Emissions in Buildings: A Synopsis of Current Studies
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Energies Vol. 15, No. 18 ( 2022-09-10), p. 6635-
    Details
    In: Energies, MDPI AG, Vol. 15, No. 18 ( 2022-09-10), p. 6635-
    Abstract: CO2 is the most emitted greenhouse gas and is mainly produced by human activity. In fact, about 75% is emitted in cities and 40% of global carbon emissions is produced by the building sector. Therefore, buildings are very important in terms of CO2 emissions. This importance is also reflected in the works that have been developed on this subject. This manuscript reviews the research that has shown or calculated the amounts of CO2 emitted in buildings. For a better understanding of the scope of the investigations, a classification is presented. With this, it is intended to help researchers interested in this area by summarizing the studies carried out to date on the amounts of CO2 emitted depending on the type of building.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 1996-1073
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/en15186635
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2437446-5
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  • 6
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    Online Resource
    Influence of Population Income on Energy Consumption for Heating and Its CO2 Emissions in Cities
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Energies Vol. 14, No. 15 ( 2021-07-27), p. 4531-
    Details
    In: Energies, MDPI AG, Vol. 14, No. 15 ( 2021-07-27), p. 4531-
    Abstract: As a result of the increase in city populations, and the high energy consumption and emissions of buildings, cities in general, and buildings in particular, are the focus of attention for public organizations and utilities. Heating is among the largest consumers of energy in buildings. This study examined the influence of the income of inhabitants on the consumption of energy for heating and the CO2 emissions in city buildings. The study was carried out using equivalized disposable income as the basis for the analysis and considered the economies of scale of households. The results are shown per inhabitant and household, by independently considering each city. Furthermore, to more clearly identify the influence of the population income, the study was also carried out without considering the influence of the climate. The method was implemented in the case of Spain. For this purpose, Spanish cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants were analyzed. The results show that, both per inhabitant and per household, the higher the income of the inhabitants, the greater the consumption of energy for heating and the greater the emissions in the city. This research aimed to help energy utilities and policy makers make appropriate decisions, namely, planning for the development of facilities that do not produce greenhouse gases, and enacting laws to achieve sustainable economies, respectively. The overall aim is to achieve the objective of mitigating the impact of emissions and the scarcity of energy resources.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 1996-1073
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/en14154531
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2437446-5
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  • 7
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Influence of Population Density on CO2 Emissions Eliminating the Influence of Climate
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Atmosphere Vol. 12, No. 9 ( 2021-09-15), p. 1193-
    Details
    In: Atmosphere, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 9 ( 2021-09-15), p. 1193-
    Abstract: More than 50% of the world’s population lives in cities. Its buildings consume more than a third of the energy and generate 40% of the emissions. This makes cities in general and their buildings in particular priority points of attention for policymakers and utilities. This paper uses population density as a variable to know its influence on energy consumption and emissions produced in buildings. Furthermore, to show its effect more clearly, the influence of the climate was eliminated. The usual energy consumption in buildings is thermal and electrical. The study was carried out at the city level, both per inhabitant and per household. The area actually occupied by the city was considered. The proposed method was applied to the case of Spanish cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants. The results show that the higher the population density, the higher the energy consumption per inhabitant and household in buildings. The consumption of thermal energy is elastic, while that of electrical energy is inelastic, varying more than 100% between extreme groups. Regarding CO2 emissions, the higher the population density, the higher the emissions. Emissions of electrical origin barely vary by 2% and are greater than those of thermal origin. In addition, the proportion of emissions of electrical origin, with respect to the total, decreases with increasing population density from 74% to 55%. This research aims to help policymakers and utilities to take the appropriate measures that favor the use of renewable energies and reduce CO2 emissions.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2073-4433
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/atmos12091193
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2605928-9
    SSG: 23
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  • 8
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    Online Resource
    Protecting stable biological nomenclatural systems enables universal communication: A collective international appeal
    Oxford University Press (OUP) ; 2024
    In:  BioScience ( 2024-06-19)
    Details
    In: BioScience, Oxford University Press (OUP), ( 2024-06-19)
    Abstract: The fundamental value of universal nomenclatural systems in biology is that they enable unambiguous scientific communication. However, the stability of these systems is threatened by recent discussions asking for a fairer nomenclature, raising the possibility of bulk revision processes for “inappropriate” names. It is evident that such proposals come from very deep feelings, but we show how they can irreparably damage the foundation of biological communication and, in turn, the sciences that depend on it. There are four essential consequences of objective codes of nomenclature: universality, stability, neutrality, and transculturality. These codes provide fair and impartial guides to the principles governing biological nomenclature and allow unambiguous universal communication in biology. Accordingly, no subjective proposals should be allowed to undermine them.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0006-3568 , 1525-3244
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biae043
    RVK:
    WA 15000
    Language: English
    Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
    Publication Date: 2024
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2066019-4
    SSG: 12
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  • 9
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    Online Resource
    Towards the Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals through Engineering Training for Labor Market Reintegration of Older Workers
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Applied Sciences Vol. 12, No. 16 ( 2022-08-10), p. 8020-
    Details
    In: Applied Sciences, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 16 ( 2022-08-10), p. 8020-
    Abstract: The inclusion of training in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in higher education is essential to achieve them. In addition, labor market reintegration or improvement of older workers is a goal that an increasing number of people have set for themselves, especially in countries severely affected by crises. The union of these two premises has given rise to the application of a methodology in a master’s degree in engineering. This manuscript makes a double contribution: on the one hand, it presents the methodology with its application through a practical case; on the other hand, it covers how students perceive the application of non-traditional training techniques. The methodology is based on student-centered learning, using case-based teaching and inquiry-based learning. The students’ perception of this change in training was evaluated through a qualitative methodological approach for five consecutive years and through two types of surveys carried out each year, one of which involves comparison with traditional training methodologies. The results of the surveys show the favorable acceptance of this form of teaching, surpassing the results of traditional teaching methods by more than 25%. As a practical implication, this research identifies new ways of teaching complex subjects that facilitate training in SDGs and the subsequent labor market reintegration of older people.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2076-3417
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/app12168020
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2704225-X
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  • 10
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    Online Resource
    A Novel Formulation to Compute Sensitivities to Solve Congestions and Voltage Problems in Active Distribution Networks
    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) ; 2021
    In:  IEEE Access Vol. 9 ( 2021), p. 60713-60723
    Details
    In: IEEE Access, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Vol. 9 ( 2021), p. 60713-60723
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2169-3536
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3073082
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2687964-5
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