Abstract
Grounded in racial identity development theories, the present study examined how COVID-related racial discrimination is related to Asian Americans’ wellbeing (i.e., life satisfaction and positive and negative affect) via sequential mediations by (a) internalized model minority myth of achievement orientation and unrestricted mobility and color-blindness and (b) mainstream and ethnic social connectedness. Asian American adults (N = 407; 49.9% female; 32% first generation, 40% second generation, and 28% third generation; Mage = 33.81) were recruited nationally through Amazon Mechanical Turk (n = 350) and through personal contacts (n = 57). Path analysis revealed that COVID-related discrimination was directly and indirectly related to wellbeing via internalized model minority myth, color-blindness, and social connectedness. Interestingly, racial discrimination was both negatively and positively related to wellbeing via the mediational paths. As hypothesized, racial discrimination was negatively related to the internalized model minority myth of unrestricted mobility and color-blindness. Unrestricted mobility was positively related to both mainstream and ethnic connectedness, whereas color-blindness was negatively related to ethnic connectedness. Mainstream and ethnic connectedness, in turn, were both positively associated with wellbeing. In the face of COVID-related discrimination, the findings suggest the importance of understanding Asian Americans’ wellbeing in relation to their racial beliefs and social connectedness. Implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
2020 FBI hate crimes statistics. (2023, April 4). Community Relations Service. https://www.justice.gov/crs/highlights/2020-hate-crimes-statistics
Asian Pacific Policy & Planning Council. (2020, June 9). Press release: Anti-Asian incidents across U.S. near 1,900 over 8-week period. http://www.asianpacificpolicyandplanningcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/Press_Release_6_9_20.pdf
Atkin, A. L., Yoo, H. C., Jager, J., & Yeh, C. J. (2018). Internalization of the model minority myth, school racial composition, and psychological distress among Asian American adolescents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9(2), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000096
Barr, S. C., & Neville, H. A. (2014). Racial socialization, color-blind racial ideology, and mental health among Black college students: An examination of an ecological model. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(2), 138–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798412475084
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023). CDC COVID Data Tracker. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#cases_casesper100klast7days
Chen, G. A., Lephuoc, P., Guzmán, M. R., Rude, S. S., & Dodd, B. G. (2006). Exploring Asian American racial identity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(3), 461–476. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.3.461
Cheng, H.-L., Kim, H. Y., Tsong, Y., & Joel Wong, Y. (2021). COVID-19 anti-Asian racism: A tripartite model of collective psychosocial resilience. American Psychologist, 76(4), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000808
Cheon, Y. M., & Yip, T. (2019). Longitudinal associations between ethnic/racial identity and discrimination among Asian and Latinx adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(9), 1736–1753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01055-6
Coleman, M. N., Chapman, S., & Wang, D. C. (2013). An examination of color-blind racism and race-related stress among African American undergraduate students. Journal of Black Psychology, 39(5), 486–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798412469226
Cross, W. E., Jr., & Vandiver, B. J. (2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 371–393). Sage Publications, Inc..
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 1984–1996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.013
Gottschall, A. C., West, S. G., & Enders, C. K. (2012). A comparison of item-level and scale-level multiple imputation for questionnaire batteries. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2012.640589
Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American journal of criminal justice: AJCJ, 45(4), 647–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
Gupta, A., Szymanski, D. M., & Leong, F. T. L. (2011). The “model minority myth”: Internalized racialism of positive stereotypes as correlates of psychological distress, and attitudes toward help-seeking. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(2), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024183
Horse, A. J. Y., Jeung, R., Lim, R., Tang, B., Im, M., Higashiyama, L., Schweng, L., & Chen, M. (2022). National report (through June 2021). Stop AAPI Hate. Retrieved September 17, 2022, from https://stopaapihate.org/stop-aapi-hate-national-report-2/
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. A. (2006). LISREL 8.54 and PRELIS 2.54. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software
Kawai, Y. (2003). Revisiting the 1966 model minority myth: A narrative criticism of its textual origins. Kaleidoscope: A graduate journal of qualitative communication research, 2(1), 1–50.
Keum, B. T., Brady, J. L., Sharma, R., Lu, Y., Kim, Y. H., & Thai, C. J. (2018). Gendered racial microaggressions scale for Asian American Women: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(5), 571–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000305
Kim, J. (1981). Processes of Asian American identity development: A study of Japanese American women’s perceptions of their struggle to achieve positive identities as Americans of Asian 7 ancestry. Doctoral Dissertation University of Massachusetts Amherst. https://scholarwork.umass.edu/dissertations_1/3685
Kim, J. (2001). Asian American racial identity theory. In C. L. Wijeyesinghe, & B. W. Jackson III (Eds.), New perspectives on racial identity development: A theoretical and practical anthology (pp. 138–161). New York University Press
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equational modeling (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
Lam, T., & Hui, J. (2016). The high cost of the model minority myth for Asian and Pacific Islander Americans. Harvard Kennedy School Review, 16, 61–68 https://ksr.hkspublications.org/2016/08/24/the-high-cost-of-the-model-minority-myth-for-asian-and-pacific-islander-americans/
Lee, J. (2017). Coping with racial/ethnic discrimination: The role of color-blind racial ideology among Asian Americans [ProQuest Information & Learning]. In Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering (Vol. 78, Issue 4–B(E)).
Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1995). Measuring belongingness: The Social Connectedness and the Social Assurance scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.232
Malcarne, V. L., Chavira, D. A., Fernandez, S., & Liu, P. J. (2006). The scale of ethnic experience: Development and psychometric properties. Journal of Personality Assessment, 86(2), 150–161. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8602_04
Matsuda, M. J., Lawrence, C. R., Delgado, R., & Kimberlé, C. (2019). Words that wound: Critical race theory, assaultive speech, and the First Amendment. Routledge.
McGee, E. O., Thakore, B. K., & LaBlance, S. S. (2017). The burden of being “model”: Racialized experiences of Asian STEM college students. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 10(3), 253. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000022
Miller, M. J., Yang, M., Farrell, J. A., & Lin, L. (2011). Racial and cultural factors affecting the mental health of Asian Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(4), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01118.x
Museus, S. D., & Kiang, P. N. (2009). Deconstructing the model minority myth and how it contributes to the invisible minority reality in higher education research. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2009(142), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.292
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus: statistical analysis with latent variables: user’s guide (Version 8). Los Angeles, CA
Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282
Neville, H. A., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2017). Racial awakening: Epiphanies and encounters in Black racial identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(1), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000105
Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Duran, G., Lee, R. M., & Browne, L. V. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.59
Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51(9), 918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.9.918
Schlomer, G. L., Bauman, S., & Card, N. A. (2010). Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018082
Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_
Sue, D. W. (1989). Racial/cultural identity development among Asian-Americans: Counseling/therapy implications. AAPA Journal, 13(1), 80–86.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2012). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Suzuki, B. H. (1977). Education and the socialization of Asian Americans: A revisionist analysis of the “model minority” thesis. Amerasia Journal, 4(2), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.17953/amer.4.2.x203l74863857108
Tawa, J., Suyemoto, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2012). Implications of perceived interpersonal and structural racism for Asian Americans’ self-esteem. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 34(4), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2012.693425
Tessler, H., Choi, M., & Kao, G. (2020). The anxiety of being Asian American: Hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09541-5
Vera, E. M., & Speight, S. L. (2003). Multicultural competencies, social justice and counseling psychology: Expanding our roles. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003031003001
Wang, L., Bordon, J. J., Wang, K. T., & Yeung, J. G. (2019). Acculturation, enculturation, perceived discrimination, and wellbeing: A comparison between US-raised and non–US-raised Asian students. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000117
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Watts-Jones, D. (2002). Healing internalized racism: The role of a within-group sanctuary among people of African descent. Family Process, 41(4), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.00591.x
Wei, M., Wang, K. T., Heppner, P. P., & Du, Y. (2012). Ethnic and mainstream social connectedness, perceived racial discrimination, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028000
West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with non-normal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Sage Publications, Inc..
Wing, J. Y. (2007). Beyond Black and White: The model minority myth and the invisibility of Asian American students. The Urban Review, 39, 455–487.
Wu, E. D. (2013). The color of success: Asian Americans and the origins of the model minority. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691157825.001.0001
Yam, K. (2020). UC Berkeley health account calls xenophobia a “common reaction” to coronavirus. NBC News https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/uc-berkeley-health-account-calls-xenophobia-common-reaction-coronavirus-n1127271
Yoo, H. C., Burrola, K. S., & Steger, M. F. (2010). A preliminary report on a new measure: Internalization of the model minority myth measure (IM-4) and its psychological correlates among Asian American college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017871
Yoo, H. C., Miller, M. J., & Yip, P. (2015). Validation of the internalization of the model minority myth measure (IM-4) and its link to academic performance and psychological adjustment among Asian American adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037648
Yoon, E. (2006). Acculturation, social connectedness, and subjective wellbeing. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Minnesota.
Yoon, E., Chang, C.-T., Kim, S., Clawson, A., Cleary, S. E., Hansen, M., Bruner, J. P., Chan, T. K., & Gomes, A. M. (2013). A meta-analysis of acculturation/enculturation and mental health. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030652
Yoon, E., Choi, Y., Kim, D., & Adams, P. (2021). Acculturation/enculturation and internalized model minority myth in Korean immigrant families. Asian American Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000259
Yoon, E., Hacker, J., Hewitt, A., Abrams, M., & Cleary, S. (2012). Social connectedness, discrimination, and social status as mediators of acculturation and enculturation and well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025366
Yoon, E., Jung, K. R., Lee, R. M., & Felix-Mora, M. (2012). Validation of social connectedness in mainstream society and the ethnic community scales. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026600
Yoon, E., Lee, R. M., & Goh, M. (2008). Acculturation, social connectedness, and subjective wellbeing. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(3), 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.3.246
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, H.N., Yoon, E. & Chang, Y.J. COVID-19-Related Racial Experiences Among Asian Americans. Int J Adv Counselling 46, 323–342 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-024-09548-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-024-09548-1