Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Using Objectification Theory to Examine the Effects of Media on Gay Male Body Image

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Clinical Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research has increasingly noted that gay male adults are more at risk for developing body image dissatisfaction than other male populations. Body image issues warrant attention, particularly since they have been connected to the development of disordered eating patterns. Studies have often traced gay male body dissatisfaction to various sociocultural elements and phenomena, particularly the media. In fact, various media genres have been implicated as being instrumental in propagating idealized male physiques, which in turn may negatively influence observers. Using objectification theory, this paper aims to review the process by which media imagery are internalized by some gay men and how such internalizations harmfully impact their body image. The clinical implications and treatment of body dissatisfaction will be reviewed in terms of social work practice with gay male populations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bartlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2008). Meta-analyses of the effects of media images on men’s body-image concerns. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(3), 279–310. doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.3.279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beren, S. E., Hayden, H. A., Wilfley, D. E., & Grilo, C. M. (1996). The influence of sexual orientation on body dissatisfaction in adult men and women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20(2), 135–141. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199609)20:2<135:AID-EAT3>3.0.CO;2-H.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bridel, W., & Rail, G. (2007). Sport, sexuality, and the production of (resistant) bodies: De-/reconstructing the meanings of gay male marathon corporeality. Sociology of Sport Journal, 24, 127–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calzo, J. P., Corliss, H. L., Blood, E. A., Field, A. E., & Austin, S. B. (2013). Development of muscularity and weight concerns in heterosexual and sexual minority males. Health Psychology, 32(1), 42–51. doi:10.1037/a0028964.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F. (1996). The treatment of body image disturbances. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment (pp. 83–107). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F. (1997). The body image workbook: An 8-step program for learning to like your looks. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F., & Strachan, M. D. (2002). Cognitive-behavioral approaches to changing body image. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 478–486). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A., Grossman, A., & Starks, M. T. (2005). Parent’s awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths’ sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 67, 474–482. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00129.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, S., & Bridges, S. K. (2010). The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory. Body Image, 7, 32–38. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.08.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, C., Dionne, M., & Shuster, B. (2001). Physical and psychological correlates of appearance orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(1), 21–50. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00006-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: the influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(3/4), 45–58. doi:10.1300/J082v47n03_03.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive behavior therapy and eating disorders. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, M. B., Torino, J. A., & Swift, M. (2011). A group intervention to improve body image satisfaction and dietary habits in gay and bisexual men living with HIV/AIDS. Eating Disorders, 19(5), 377–391. doi:10.1080/10640266.2011.609084.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory. Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gettelman, T. E., & Thompson, J. K. (1993). Actual differences and stereotypical perceptions in body image and eating disturbance: A comparison of male and female heterosexual and homosexual samples. Sex Roles, 29(7/8), 545–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granvold, D. K. (1997). Cognitive-behavioral therapy with adults. In J. Brandell (Ed.), Theory and practice in clinical social work (pp. 164–201). New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakala, U. (2006). Adam in ads: A thirty-year look at mediated masculinities in advertising in Finland and the US. Tampere: Esa Print Tampere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2009). Muscular ideal media images and men’s body image: Social comparison processing and individual vulnerability. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10(2), 109–119. doi:10.1037/a0014691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1992). Social comparison: Gender, target importance ratings, and relation to body image disturbance. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7(2), 335–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrandt, T., Loeb, K., Troupe, S., & Delinsky, S. (2012). Adjunctive mirror exposure for eating disorders: a randomized controlled pilot study. Behavioral Researcy and Therapy, 50(12), 797–804. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.09.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaminski, P. L., Chapman, B. P., Haynes, S. D., & Own, L. (2005). Body image, eating behaviors, and attitudes toward exercise among gay and straight men. Eating Behaviors, 6(3), 179–187. doi:10.1016/jeatbeh.2004.11.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, C., & Martino, W. (2006). Introduction. In C. Kendall & W. Martino (Eds.), Gender outcasts and sexual outlaws: Sexual oppression and gender hierarchies in queer men’s lives (pp. 5–16). New York, NY: Harrington Park Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolbe, R. H., & Albanese, P. J. (1996). Man to man: A content analysis of sole-male images in male-audience magazines. Journal of Advertising, 25, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozak, M., Frankenhauser, H., & Roberts, T. (2009). Objects of desire: Objectification as a function of male sexual orientation. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10(3), 225–230. doi:10.1037/a0016257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanzieri, N., & Cook, B. J. (2013). Examination of muscularity and body fat depictions in magazines that target heterosexual and gay men. Body Image, 10(2), 251–254. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.12.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lanzieri, N., & Hildebrandt, T. (2011). Using hegemonic masculinity to explain gay male attraction to muscular and athletic men. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(2), 275–293. doi:10.1080/00918369.2011.540184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, M. J., & Vichesky, D. R. (2006). Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men. Body Image, 3, 45–55. doi:10.1016/j/bodyim.2005.10.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maisey, D. S., Vale, E. L. E., Cornelissen, P. L., & Tovee, M. J. (1999). Characteristics of male attractiveness for women. The Lancet, 353, 1500–1501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marino Carper, T. L., Negy, C., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2010). Relations among media influence, body image, eating concerns, and sexual orientation in men: A preliminary investigation. Body Image, 7(4), 301–309. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.07.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Churchett, L. (2008). The shape of things to come: Gay men’s satisfaction with specific body parts. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 9(4), 248–256. doi:10.1037/a0012473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Those speedos become them. The role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men’s body image. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(5), 634–647. doi:10.1177/0146167206297403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56(6), 675–685. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00129-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCreary, D. R., Hildebrandt, T. B., Heinberg, L. J., Boroughs, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2007). A review of body image influences on men’s fitness goals and supplement use. American Journal of Men’s Health, 1(4), 307–316. doi:10.1177/1557988306309408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, T. G., Kalin, R., & Morrison, M. A. (2004a). Body-image evaluation and body-image investment among adolescents: A test of sociocultural and social comparison theories. Adolescence, 39, 571–592.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., & Hopkins, C. (2003). Striving for bodily perfection? An exploration of the drive for muscularity in Canadian men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4(2), 111–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C. L. (2004b). Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review. Body Image, 1, 127–138. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.01.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, K., & LeBow, M. (2006). Reducing maladaptive weight management practices: Developing a psychoeducational intervention program. Eating Behaviors, 8, 195–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parent, M. C. (2013). Clinical considerations in etiology, assessment, and treatment of men’s muscularity-focused body image disturbance. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 14(1), 88–100. doi:10.1037/a0025644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, K. A. (2001). Body dysmorphic disorder. In K. A. Phillips (Ed.), Somatoform and factitious disorders (pp. 67–88). Washington DC: APA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rikani, A. A., Choudhry, Z., Choudhry, A. M., Ikram, H., Asghar, M. W., Kajal, D., et al. (2013). A critique of the literature on etiology of eating disorders. Annals of Neurosciences, 20(4), 157–161. doi:10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200409.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rohlinger, D. A. (2002). Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectification. Sex Roles, 46(3/4), 61–74. doi:10.1023/A:1016575909173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, J. C. (1996a). Improving body image in obesity. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment (pp. 425–440). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, J. C. (1996b). Body dysmorphic disorder: Assessment and treatment. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment (pp. 149–170). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenmann, A., & Kaplan, D. (2014). Masculine body ideologies as a non-gynocentric framework for the psychological study of the male body. Body Image, 11(4), 570–580. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, C. J., & Keel, P. K. (2002). Homosexuality as specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(3), 300–306. doi:10.1002/eat.10036.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saucier, J. A., & Caron, S. L. (2008). An investigation of content and media images in gay men’s magazines. Journal of Homosexuality, 55(3), 504–523. doi:10.1080/0918360802345297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J., & Andsager, J. L. (2011). Four decades of images in gay male-targeted magazines. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 88(1), 76–98. doi:10.1177/107769901108800105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siever, M. D. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 252–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silberstein, L. R., Mishkind, M. E., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1989). Men and their bodies: A comparison of homosexual and heterosexual men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 51, 337–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 46(9/10), 343–349. doi:10.1023/A:1020232712705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., & Presnell, K. (2007). The Body Project: Promoting body acceptance and preventive eating disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Shaw, H. E., Burton, E., & Wade, E. (2006). Dissonance and healthy weight eating disorder prevention programs: A randomized efficacy trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(2), 263–275. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.2.263.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stratton, J. (1996). The desirable body: Cultural fetishism and the erotics of consumption. London: Manchester University Press ND.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, S. M., Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2000). Childhood gender non conformity and body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men. Sex Roles, 43, 427–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovee, M. J. (2008). The muscular male: A comparison of the physical attractiveness preferences of gay and heterosexual men. International Journal of Men’s Health, 7, 59–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment and treatment of body image disturbance (pp. 85–124). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 243–253. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., Martins, Y., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Oh to be lean and muscular: Body image ideals in gay and heterosexual men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8, 15–24. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.1.15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tod, D., Edwards, C., & Hall, G. (2013). Drive for leanness and health-related behavior within a social/cultural perspective. Body Image, 10(4), 640–643. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.05.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varangis, E., Lanzieri, N., Hildebrandt, T., & Feldman, M. (2012). Gay male attraction toward muscular men: Does mating context matter? Body Image, 9(2), 270–278. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.01.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waller, G., Cordery, H., Corstorphine, E., Hinrichsen, H., Lawson, R., Mountford, V., & Russell, K. (2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy for eating disorders. A comprehensive treatment guide. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, L., & Miyake, K. (1992). Social comparison in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(5), 760.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield, G., & Davidson, A. (2007). Cognitive behavior therapy explained. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, G. T., Rossiter, E., Kleifield, E. I., & Lindholm, L. (1986). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of bulimia nervosa: A controlled evaluation. Behavior Research and Therapy, 24(3), 277–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4, 107–116. doi:10.1016/S1471-0513(03)00014-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. New York University, New York, USA

    Nicholas Lanzieri

  2. Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York, USA

    Tom Hildebrandt

Authors
  1. Nicholas Lanzieri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tom Hildebrandt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicholas Lanzieri.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lanzieri, N., Hildebrandt, T. Using Objectification Theory to Examine the Effects of Media on Gay Male Body Image. Clin Soc Work J 44, 105–113 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-015-0562-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-015-0562-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation