Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Emotion Regulation in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There has been little research connecting underlying emotion processes (e.g., emotion regulation) to frequent behavior problems in young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study examined the stability of emotion regulation and its relationship with other aspects of child functioning. Participants included 108 children with ASD, ages 4–7, and their primary caregivers. ASD symptoms and cognitive/language abilities were assessed upon study entry. Parents reported on children’s emotion regulation, social skills and behavior problems at two time points, 10 months apart. Emotion dysregulation was stable and related strongly to social and behavioral functioning but was largely independent of IQ. Further analyses suggested that emotion dysregulation predicts increases in social and behavioral difficulties across time. Implications for intervention are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Although no formal normative data exists for the ERC, we compared scores from our sample of children with ASD to a sample of children “at risk” (i.e., in Head Start), ages 33–70 months of age (n = 331; Cohen and Mendez 2009). The children in this study with ASD exhibited significantly higher levels of lability/negativity symptoms on the ERC-LN (t(202) = − 12.01, p < .001), but equal levels of emotion regulation skills on the ERC-ER (t(195) = − 0.30, p > .05). Comparisons of the CBCL-EDI with data from Samson et al. (2014) show comparable scores to their ASD group (t(157) = − 0.33, p > .05), but higher levels of dysregulation compared to their typically developing group (t(138) = − 9.73, p < .001).

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont. Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families. Burlington: University of Vermont.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont. Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families. Burlington: University of Vermont.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edn.). Washington: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ashburner, J., Ziviani, J., & Rodger, S. (2010). Surviving in the mainstream: Capacity of children with autism spectrum disorders to perform academically and regulate their emotions and behavior at school. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(1), 18–27. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.07.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begeer, S., Koot, H. M., Rieffe, C., Meerum Terwogt, M., & Stegge, H. (2008). Emotional competence in children with autism: Diagnostic criteria and empirical evidence. Developmental Review, 28(3), 342–369. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.09.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010). Predicting emotional and social competence during early childhood from toddler risk and maternal behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 119–132. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990307.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Calero, M. D., García-Martín, M. B., Jiménez, M. I., Kazén, M., & Araque, A. (2007). Self-regulation advantage for high-IQ children: Findings from a research study. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(4), 328–343. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cappadocia, M. C., Weiss, J. A., & Pepler, D. (2012). Bullying experiences among children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(2), 266–277. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1241-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capps, L., Kasari, C., Yirmiya, N., & Sigman, M. (1993). Parental perception of emotional expressiveness in children with autism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(3), 475–484. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.3.475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (1999). Comprehensive assessment of spoken language (CASL). Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C., & Rotheram-Fuller, E. (2007). Involvement or isolation? The social networks of children with autism in regular classrooms. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 230–242. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0164-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. S., & Mendez, J. L. (2009). Emotion regulation, language ability, and the stability of preschool children’s peer play behavior. Early Education and Development, 20(6), 1016–1037. doi:10.1080/10409280903305716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 73. doi:10.2307/1166139.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N. (2002). The social responsiveness scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., Przybeck, T., Friesen, D., & Todd, R. D. (2000). Reciprocal social behavior in children with and without pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 21(1), 2–11. doi:10.1097/00004703-200002000-00002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N., & Dodge, K. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Bernzweig, J., Karbon, M., Poulin, R., & Hanish, L. (1993). The relations of emotionality and regulation to preschoolers’ social skills and sociometric status. Child Development, 64(5), 1418–1438. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02961.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, F., Myatt, R., & Feinberg, D. (2007). Parent-assisted friendship training for children with autism spectrum disorders: Effects of psychotropic medication. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37(4), 337–346. doi:10.1007/s10578-007-0053-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Smith, I. M., Brian, J., Roberts, W., & Szatmari, P. (2009). Temperament and its relationship to autistic symptoms in a high-risk infant sib cohort. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(1), 59–78. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9258-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiades, S., Szatmari, P., Duku, E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., & Roberts, W. (2011). Phenotypic overlap between core diagnostic features and emotional/behavioral problems in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(10), 1321–1329. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1158-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, K. L., & Southam-Gerow, M. A. (2010). The regulating role of negative emotions in children’s coping with peer rejection. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(5), 515–534. doi:10.1007/s10578-010-0185-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. doi:10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, P., Reavis, R., Keane, S., & Calkins, S. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in children’s early academic success. Journal of School Psychology, 45(1), 3–19. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2006.09.002.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (2008). Social skills improvement system rating scales manual. Minneapolis: NCS Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., Cook, C. R., Vance, M. J., & Kettler, R. (2010). Cross-informant agreement for ratings for social skill and problem behavior ratings: An investigation of the social skills improvement system—rating scales. Psychological Assessment, 22(1), 157–166. doi:10.1037/a0018124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, A. P., Zuckerman, K. E., Hagen, A. D., Kriz, D. J., Duvall, S. W., van Santen, J., … Fombonne, E., et al. (2014). Aggressive behavior problems in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence and correlates in a large clinical sample. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(9), 1121–1133. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.05.006.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jahromi, L. B., Bryce, C. I., & Swanson, J. (2013). The importance of self-regulation for the school and peer engagement of children with high-functioning autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(2), 235–246. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2012.08.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahromi, L. B., Meek, S. E., & Ober-Reynolds, S. (2012). Emotion regulation in the context of frustration in children with high functioning autism and their typical peers: Emotion regulation in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(12), 1250–1258. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02560.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jahromi, L. B., & Stifter, C. A. (2008). Individual differences in preschoolers’ self-regulation and theory of mind. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54(1), 125–150. doi:10.1353/mpq.2008.0007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konstantareas, M. M., & Stewart, K. (2006). Affect regulation and temperament in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(2), 143–154. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0051-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LoBello, S. G. (1991). A short form of the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence-revised. Journal of School Psychology, 29(3), 229–236. doi:10.1016/0022-4405(91)90004-B.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule, second edition (ADOS-2). Torrance: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(5), 659–685. doi:10.1007/BF02172145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C. A., Borue, X., Day, T. N., & Minshew, N. J. (2014). Emotion regulation patterns in adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: Comparison to typically developing adolescents and association with psychiatric symptoms. Autism Research, 7(3), 344–354. doi:10.1002/aur.1366.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C. A., Herrington, J., Siegel, M., Scarpa, A., Maddox, B. B., Scahill, L., & White, S. W. (2013). The role of emotion regulation in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(7), 679–688. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, A. L., Kiely Gouley, K., Seifer, R., Dickstein, S., & Shields, A. (2004). Emotions and behaviors in the head start classroom: Associations among observed dysregulation, social competence, and preschool adjustment. Early Education & Development, 15, 147–166. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1502_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Prizant, B., Wetherby, A., Rubin, E., Laurent, A., & Rydell, P. (2006). The SCERTS model: A comprehensive educational approach for children with autism spectrum disorders. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reichow, B., Salamack, S., Paul, R., Volkmar, F. R., & Klin, A. (2008). Pragmatic assessment in autism spectrum disorders: A comparison of a standard measure with parent report. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 29(3), 169–176. doi:10.1177/1525740108318697.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rydell, A.-M., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2007). Emotion regulation in relation to social functioning: An investigation of child self-reports. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 4(3), 293–313. doi:10.1080/17405620600783526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson, A. C., Phillips, J. M., Parker, K. J., Shah, S., Gross, J. J., & Hardan, A. Y. (2014). Emotion dysregulation and the core features of autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(7), 1766–1772. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-2022-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations (5th edn.). San Diego: Jerome M Sattler Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarpa, A., & Reyes, N. M. (2011). Improving emotion regulation with CBT in young children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39(04), 495–500. doi:10.1017/S1352465811000063.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation among school-age children: The development and validation of a new criterion Q-sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 906–916. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.906.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2002). Emotion regulation and understanding: Implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 189–222. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00087-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 25–52. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., Emerson, E., Lancaster, G. A., & Berridge, D. M. (2011). A population-based investigation of behavioural and emotional problems and maternal mental health: Associations with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(1), 91–99. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02295.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uljarevic, M., & Hamilton, A. (2013). Recognition of emotions in autism: A formal meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1517–1526. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1695-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2002). The Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence- Third Edition. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williford, A. P., Vick Whittaker, J. E., Vitiello, V. E., & Downer, J. T. (2013). Children’s engagement within the preschool classroom and their development of self-regulation. Early Education & Development, 24(2), 162–187. doi:10.1080/10409289.2011.628270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, B. J., Fernandes-Richards, S., Aarskog, C., Osborn, T., & Capetillo, D. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in the social problems of boys with developmental delays. Early Education & Development, 18(2), 201–222. doi:10.1080/10409280701282769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author Contributions

LB conceived of the study, participated in analysis and interpretation of data, and drafted the manuscript. AE participated in the design of the study and revision of the manuscript. JB participated in the design of the study, data analysis/interpretation and revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This paper was based on the activities of Smooth Sailing, a two-site longitudinal study supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, Grant number R324A110086, J. Blacher, PI, Abbey Eisenhower, co-PI.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Ave, Los Angles, CA, 90095, USA

    Lauren Berkovits

  2. University of Massachusetts, Boston, Boston, MA, USA

    Abbey Eisenhower

  3. University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA

    Jan Blacher

Authors
  1. Lauren Berkovits
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abbey Eisenhower
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jan Blacher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lauren Berkovits.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Lauren Berkovits declares that she has no conflict of interest. Abbey Eisenhower declares that she has no conflict of interest. Jan Blacher declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

We appreciate the collaboration of The Help Group-UCLA Autism Research Alliance and its Director, Dr. Elizabeth Laugeson, for facilitating this study. We also appreciate the efforts of our doctoral students, staff, and participating families.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Berkovits, L., Eisenhower, A. & Blacher, J. Emotion Regulation in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 47, 68–79 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2922-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2922-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation