Abstract
Macrophages sense exogenous/endogenous danger signals due to their high functional plasticity and adjust their output signals accordingly. These comprise immune responses with the formation of reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines, with the assumption that reactive species compose a redox signalling network. However, alternatively polarised macrophages suppress toxic radical formation, producing anti-inflammatory signatures associated with tissue repair, immune modulation, and angiogenesis. To change their mediator profile, we describe macrophage subsets and their response to apoptotic cells, focusing on reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and signalling mechanisms, and how apoptotic cells polarise macrophages to adopt an immune-regulatory, pro-angiogenic, and tumour-promoting phenotype.
We apologise to researchers whose primary observations, which form the basis of current knowledge in the field, could not be cited due to space limitations, or have been acknowledged indirectly, by referring to current reviews. Our work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 815, SFB 1039, BR999), Deutsche Krebshilfe (109599), Translational Research Innovation Pharma (TRIP), the Hans Kröner-Graduate School, and the Sander Foundation (2013.036.1).
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