Analysis of metal(loid)s contamination and their continuous input in soils around a zinc smelter: Development of methodology and a case study in South Korea☆
Graphical abstract
Introduction
A major anthropogenic source of trace metal pollution in the environment is the smelting of nonferrous metals (Li et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2017; Zhan et al., 2014). Ample evidence shows that atmospheric deposition of smelter emissions causes soil contamination (Tembo et al., 2006; Svendsen et al., 2007; Šajn et al., 2013; Zhan et al., 2014; Ghayoraneh and Qishlaqi, 2017; Shen et al., 2017), and high concentrations of metal(loid)s such as Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn, and As have been found in soils around smelters in various countries (Borgna et al., 2009; Stafilov et al., 2010; Li et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2013; Šajn et al., 2013) often at concentrations that are well above regulatory limits and therefore should in principle require some form of remediation.
It is generally not too difficult, via transect- or systematic sampling studies, to determine the concentration of metal(loid)s in soils at various distances from a given smelter facility, and to identify the region where this concentration pauses (eco)toxicological risks. Once the extent of this contaminated region is known, one can design an appropriate remediation strategy. This process has been carried out by various groups of researchers in different parts of the world, and in particular by Hong et al. (2009) a few years back for the Seokpo zinc smelter located in Bonghwa County, Gyeongbuk Province (South Korea). In the vicinity of the smelter, these authors focused on Cd and Zn pollution in the predominantly agricultural land; where nearby residents grow vegetables and fruit trees, to satisfy local consumption.
Once a strategy for remediation has been clearly identified, it would seem straightforward for local or government officials to turn to polluters to pay for clean-up costs. However, experience has shown time and again that it is relatively easy for those responsible for the pollution to deflect the charges by claiming that metal(loid) concentrations that are above regulatory standards in soils near smelter sites are due to natural background metal(loid)s concentrations in soils being high, not to actual pollution. Unfortunately, a clear methodology to assess the true extent of metal(loid)s pollution around smelter sites appears to be lacking at this point, making it very difficult for decision-makers to move forward.
In this context, a key objective of the research described in the present article was to return to the Seokpo zinc smelter site already analyzed by Hong et al. (2009), and to devise a method to tease apart metal(loid) pollution from background levels in soils in the vicinity of the smelter. To achieve this objective, several approaches were combined. The concentrations of metals in the soil were surveyed extensively through site investigation. Then, we conducted a multivariate statistical analysis and examined the spatial distribution by identifying the horizontal variation of metals according to particular wind directions and distance from the smelter and drawing a distribution map by means of a GIS tool.
Section snippets
Site description
Located in the village of Seokpo, in Bonghwa County, Gyeongbuk Province, Republic of Korea (Fig. 1), the Seokpo zinc smelter started operation in 1970 and is now one of the largest Zn producers in Asia. The annual production capacities of the smelter for zinc (zinc slab), sulfuric acid, copper sulfate, silver (by-product of smelting zinc ores), and indium are 350,000, 600,000, 1,500, 28,000, and 30 tons, respectively, according to its official website (www.ypzinc.co.kr).
The study site is within
General properties of the soil
The general properties of the soil are presented in Supplementary Table S2. The pH values ranged between 4.57 and 8.19 (mean pH 6.44) with a low coefficient of variation (CV; 13%), suggesting that most of the soil samples are slightly acidic. Park et al. (2016) reported that the mean pH value of upland soils in South Korea (Gyeongbuk Province) was 6.4 with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.8 (CV = 13%). The mean values of the particle size fractions of the soil samples are 54.9% sand, 31.8% silt,
Conclusion
Using the total concentrations of metal(loid)s in the soils of the study area, we conducted multivariate statistical analysis, examined the horizontal variation of the metal(loid)s according to wind directions and distance from the smelter, and analyzed the spatial distribution of the metal concentrations. The combination of these three approaches was effective in identifying the sources of metal(loid)s and analyzing their contamination characteristics. We also confirmed that lithogenic Fe is a
Acknowledgments
This work was carried out with the support of “Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science & Technology Development (Project No. PJ012654)” Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
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This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Prof. W. Wen-Xiong.